Relativity of Simultaneity - Bad Explanations on the Web

A common example used to demonstrate the Relativity of Simultaneity goes like this, more or less:

A train of length D is passing by a platform of length D. An observer P stands in the middle of the platform, and there's another observer T who sits in the middle of the train. P notices that the front end of the train coincides with the front edge of the platform AT THE SAME TIME as when the rear end of the train coincides with the rear edge of the platform. The two 'coincidence events' are thus simultaneous in P's frame of reference.

The question is, does T agree that both 'coincidence events' are simultaneous in T's frame of reference? (It is implicitly assumed that this question is posed in P's frame of reference and that both reference frames are inertial.)

The correct answer in Special Relativity is "No".

Call the front coincidence event F and the rear coincidence event R. Then, according to T, F happens before R. The events are NOT simultaneous in T's frame of reference even though they are simultaneous in P's frame of reference.

The Bad Explanation

Often times, the bad explanation for this is an incomplete version of a correct explanation provided by Einstein himself [Ein1924]. The bad explanation goes as follows:

Because P is in the centre of the platform, the light from both 'coincidence events' reaches her at the same time. Hence, P considers both events as simultaneous. But, as T is moving towards F, light from F reaches T sooner than does light from R. Hence, T concludes that the event at F happened before the one at R.

This is Wrong on Many Levels

Whereas the explanation provided by Einstein himself [Ein1924] appears correct in all respects (and I'll talk about it below), by skipping some tiny, but important, details the bad explanation is totally out-of-whack.

Apparent Time vs. Real Time

The fact that light from both ends reaches the observer P at the same time is immaterial to the notion of simultaneity.

Would P's definition of simultaneous change if we had placed her at one edge, say the front edge, of the platform? Going by the explanation given above, P would then say that F happened before R because light from R takes some time (D/c) to reach her at F. However, the correct thing for P to do (whether in Relativity or in Newtonian physics) is to compute the real time at which R occurred based on her knowledge of

1. The distance between R and her; and
2. The time on her clock when the light from R reached her.

If P does this, she'll recognize that F and R did happen at the same time in her frame of reference regardless of her exact position.

In fact, all discussions use the real time of the event as measured in a frame of reference and NOT the apparent time of the event (i.e. when light from the event reaches the observer). This point, which is frequently glossed over, is true whether we're talking about Special Relativity or Newtonian physics.

Où vous êtes, Relativité Spéciale?

How many results from Special Relativity are used in the bad explanation above?

Absolutely NONE!

The bad explanation requires no knowledge of Special relativity at all. A Newtonian Physicist would as easily 'accept' the explanation as any layman would. A Newtonian physicist would additionally point out the need to compute the real time of both events in T's frame. She would then demonstrate that both the events were simultaneous in T's frame of reference too! (Prove this!) "Galilean Relativity is thus NOT violated; simultaneity is indeed absolute in all inertial frames. Phew!"

(Indeed, how can one hope to explain a Special Relativistic phenomenon using concepts from Newtonian mechanics? If that were possible, the Relativity of Simultaneity would have been appreciated decades before Einstein arrived on the scene.)

The Correct Explanation using Special Relativity

There are many ways to correctly explain the Relativity of Simultaneity in this particular example. Einstein himself provided one which employs the central postulate of Special Relativity (i.e. the speed of light in vacuum is the same in all inertial frames) [Ein1924]. In what follows, I employ the result of Length Contraction from Special Relativity.

We have to consider the events from T's perspective to understand what happens in her frame.

Let L denote the Lorentz factor between the two frames. Thus, if the train was moving with a velocity v as measured in P's frame, then

L = (1 - v^2/c^2)^(-1/2) > 1

Since the length of the moving train is D in P's frame, the (rest) length of the train in T's frame is LD.
Since the (rest) length of the stationary platform is D in P's frame, the length of the platform in T's frame is D/L.
In other words, the train is longer than the platform by a factor of L^2 (> 1) as measured in T's frame. (The actual factor by which it is longer is completely immaterial in what follows. I've run through this just to reinforce the fact that in T's frame of reference the platform is shorter than the train.)

From T's perspective, when the front end of the train coincides with the front edge of the platform (event F), the rear end of the train is NOT coincident with the rear edge of the platform. See position 1 in the figure below.

Some time later, T coincides with P who is standing in the middle of the platform. At this point neither ends of the train are coincident what the edges of the platform. However, this is exactly when P perceives both events F and R. See position 2.

Some more time later, the rear end of the train coincides with the rear edge of the platform (event R). At this point, the front end of the train is obviously NOT coincident with the front edge of the platform. See position 3.

Thus, T's perspective on these events is completely different from P's perspective. The events are not simultaneous, and in fact the ordering of the events in T's frame of reference is as presented above.

This is basically Relativity of Simultaneity.

Einstein's Original Explanation

The basic statement of Einstein's original thought-experiment is somewhat different, but only in the details [Ein1924]. The resolution proceeds as follows:

Because P is in the middle of the platform, light from both 'coincidence events' reaches her at the same time. P knows she's equidistant from both edges of the platform so light from both edges should take the same time to reach her. Thus, she deduces that both F and R were simultaneous.

Now, as seen by P, T is moving towards F. So, in P's frame of reference, light from F reaches T before the light from R does. (Now Einstein implicitly assumes that this order of events must be true even in T's frame of reference. Why?) But, T knows she's in the centre of the train. So light from both ends of the train should take the same time to reach her as light travels with a constant speed in her frame too. (Einstein fails to clarify this specific point in his explication). But, as the light from F reached her first, she concludes that F happened before R.

The numbers can be crunched to see whether the observations in P's frame actually transform correctly to those in T's frame using Einstein's interpretation. As one would expect, they do. Details are in the accompanying figure.

In Closing

I believe that the curious way in which the problem is formulated leaves significant scope for confusion. Einstein, ostensibly, chose the basic structure of the problem in this manner (i.e. with both observers in the 'middle') to simplify the overall explanation and provide an intuitive feeling for Special Relativity. However, this leads to the situation where the order in which light from the two events reaches the observers is identical to the order in which their respective reference frames place the events. It is very easy for lay students of Special Relativity to lose sight of the fact that the order in which light reaches an observer is inconsequential in defining simultaneity (or general ordering between events). So, one might leave with the impression that light reaching one's eyes is the only thing that matters.

The example used in Wikipedia to demonstrate the Relativity of Simultaneity is definitely better in my opinion.

---

References

---

[Ein1924] Albert Einstein (Tr. Robert W. Lawson), "Relativity - The Special and General Theory", Methuen & Co., Ltd., 1924.

---

The Fundamental Theorem of Intervallic Atoms

This is a side-bar to A Model for Implied Intonations in Classical हिन्दूस्तानी (Hindustani) Music which contains much of the background necessary to understand what follows.


Notation

We define compound intervals as those intervals which can be 'factored' into a non­-empty set of intervallic atoms. The Unison (1:1) serves as an identity element and is excluded from this definition because it can be trivially represented as an empty set of atomic factors.

A convenient way of representing a compound interval in terms of its constituent atoms is to use the exponent (^) notation to indicate the number of times each atom occurs in the factoring of that interval. For instance, the Just Fourth {T, S, s, S} may be written {T^1, S^2, s^1}.

An alternative method is to represent the intervals as points in a 3­-dimensional space [T, S, s] for which the origin [0, 0, 0] is the Unison. The Just Fourth would be [1, 2, 1]. Juxtaposition of intervals then becomes addition in the [T, S, s] space.


Representation Lemma

An arbitrary repeated sequence of a given intervallic atom cannot be represented in terms of the other atoms.
{T^p} ≠ {S^q , s^r } ∀ p, q, r ≥ 0 provided [p, q, r] ≠ [0, 0, 0].

Proof

Proceeding by the method of Proof by Contradiction, we assume that the above inequality is actually false. In that case, after substituting the values for T, S, and s, we can write:
(9/8)^p = (16/15)^q ⋅ (25/24)^r

or
3^(2p) / 2^(3p) = 2^(4q) / (5^q ⋅ 3^q) ⋅ 5^(2r) / (2^3r ⋅ 3^r)

which gives
5^q ⋅ 3^(2p+q+r) ⋅ 2^(3r) = 5^(2r) ⋅ 3^0 ⋅ 2^(4q+3p)

By the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic [And1971], the exponents on both sides must be equal. So,
q = 2r
2p+q+r = 0
3r = 4q+3p

Putting q = 2r into the other two equations gives,
2p +3r = 0
3p + 5r = 0

which implies,
p = -2r

However, since p and r are both positive, the only solution then is the trivial
p = r = 0 ⇒ q = 0

This solution, however, represents the Unison {T^0, S^0, s^0} and also contradicts the starting condition that not all p, q, r are 0 simultaneously. Hence, the inequality {T^p} ≠ {S^q, s^r} must be true.

Similar proofs apply for {S^p} ≠ {T^q, s^r} and {s^p} ≠ {T^q, S^r}.

QED.


The Fundamental Theorem of Intervallic Atoms

There is a unique way of factoring a compound interval into constituent intervallic atoms.
{T^a, S^b, s^c} = {T^p, S^q, s^r} ⇔ a = p, b = q, c = r, where a, b, c, p, q, r ≥ 0.

Proof

We proceed by the method of Proof by Contradiction. Let us assume that there exist compound intervals which can be factored in more than one way. Let Д be the smallest such compound interval. Then, we can write:
Д = {T^a, S^b, s^c} = {T^p, S^q, s^r}, where a, b, c, p, q, r ≥ 0.

Trivially, at least one of the following identities must not hold
a = p
b = q
c = r
Otherwise both the representations of Д would be identical.

Also, [a, b, c] ≠ [0, 0, 0] and [p, q, r] ≠ [0, 0, 0]. Otherwise Д is the Unison.

Now, let min(x, y) be the minimum of the two values x & y. Define
e = min(a, p)
f = min(b, q)
g = min(c, r)
Then we have two cases.

Case 1: [e, f, g] ≠ [0, 0, 0]

This implies that the interval {T^e, S^f, s^g} is common to both the representations of Д and can be factored out:
Д ∖ {T^e, S^f, s^g } = {T^(a-e), S^(b-f), s^(c-g)} = {T^(p-e), S^(q-f), s^(r-g)}

Now, by the conditions of the assumption, Д is the smallest compound interval representable in more than one way. Clearly, both {T^(a-e), S^(b-f), s^(c-g)} and {T^(p-e), S^(q-f), s^(r-g)} are smaller than Д and both are compound intervals since they obviously have a representation in terms of the intervallic atoms.

Thus, by the conditions of the assumption, both necessarily have a unique representation. Since the intervals are identical, it implies that corresponding indices are identical:
a = p
b = q
c = r
which contradicts the conditions of the assumption. Hence, Д cannot exist in this case.

Case 2: [e, f, g] = [0, 0, 0]

Since not all the three indices (a, b, c or (p, q, r can be zero simultaneously, this case happens only if one index is 0 in one group and the other two indices are 0 in the other group. Without loss of generality, assume that a = q = r = 0. This means that Д can be written,
Д = {S^b, s^c}= {T^p}, where b, c, p  0.

However, by the Representation Lemma, this is impossible. Hence, Д cannot exist in this case.

Thus, there is no such Д representable in more than one way.

QED.

This theorem is termed the Fundamental Theorem of Intervallic Atoms.


Intervals as Mathematical Groups

Consider L = {m:n | m, n ∈ N, gcd(m, n = 1, n <= m <= 2n} which represents the set of all intervals in the range of an octave. Then ƛ = {L, ⋅} is a multiplicative Abelian Group if the multiplication operation ⋅ is defined consistently to be modulo 2:1 and closed under L. The neutral (or identity) element is the Unison 1:1.

---

References

---

[And1971] George E. Andrews, "Number Theory". Dover Publications Inc., 1971.

---

A Model for Implied Intonations in Classical हिन्दूस्तानी (Hindustani) Music - Sidebars

Sidebars

The following are additional ruminations on my model of scales used in Classical हिन्दूस्तानी Music.

Weights-based grouping

An intriguing picture arises if we arbitrarily assign weights to the intervallic atoms in terms of increasing interval size:

1 = s (25:24)
2 = S (16:15)
4 = T (9:8)

Note that T is assigned 4 because T > { S, s } = 3.

These weights are also obliquely inspired by मुनि भरत's २२-शृति model in which three different interval sizes, possibly corresponding to the major tone, minor tone, and semitone, were assigned शृति values 4, 3, and 2. It is thought that these values were coarse approximations to the size of the associated interval.

Now, identify each of the notes in the model with the sum of the weights of the intervallic atoms which comprise the interval. This gives the following grouping:

00 = { 1/1 } = { S }
01 = { 25/24 } = { r1 }
02 = { 16/15 } = { r2 }
03 = { 10/9 } = { R1 }
04 = { 9/8, 256/225 } = { R2, R3 }
05 = { 75/64, 32/27 } = { g1, g2 }
06 = { 6/5} = { g3 }
07 = { 5/4 } = { G1 }
08 = { 81/64, 32/25 } = { G2, G3 }
09 = { 675/512, 4/3 } = { m-, m }
10 = { 27/20, 25/18 } = { m+, M1 }
11 = { 45/32, 64/45 } = { M2, M3 }
12 = { 36/25, 40/27 } = { M4, P- }
13 = { 3/2, 1024/675 } = { P, P+ }
14 = { 25/16, 128/81 } = { d1, d2 }
15 = { 8/5 } = { d3 }
16 = { 5/3 } = { D1 }
17 = { 27/16, 128/75 } = { D2, D3 }
18 = { 225/128, 16/9 } = { n1, n2 }
19 = { 9/5 } = { n3 }
20 = {15/8 } = { N1 }
21 = { 48/25 } = { N2 }
22 = { 2/1 } = { S* }

Note that some notes end up in the same weight group. These notes are precisely those which differ from each other by less than a Comma; by 2048:2025 (~19.55c) in fact, if you discount the four 'false' notes (m-, m+, P-, P+).

22 Weight Groups = २२ शृतिs ?

That there are 22 weight groups in the octave is no accident. It is a natural consequence of having chosen the weight values 1, 2, and 4 for the three intervallic atoms s, S, and T. As a result, the octave totals up to a weight of 22. However, what is indeed striking is that there are no weight groups which are empty, and many of them have a single member (especially if you discount the four 'false' notes).

What is also interesting is that the r, R, g, G, d, D, n, and N स्वर-स्थानs differentiate into two sub-groups each. Following the कोमल/तीव्र terminology employed earlier for each स्वर, one could consider a nomenclature of कोमल-तर, कोमल, तीव्र, and तीव्र-तर. Thus, r1 = कोमल-तर ऋषभ, r2 = कोमल ऋषभ, R1 = तीव्र ऋषभ, and R2/R3 = तीव्र-तर ऋषभ. Ditto for the other notes. The कोमल मध्यम is the only exception due to the peculiar consonant position it enjoys in the scale - and we assign it only one location (m). On the other hand, we consider the तीव्र मध्यम as differentiated into तीव्र मध्यम (M1), तीव्र-तर मध्यम (M2/M3), and तीव्र-तम मध्यम (M4).

For those who wish to view हिन्दूस्तानी scales in terms of a २२-शृति model, the mapping above may be useful. Note however that each शृति (weight group) is an equivalence class of notes and can be multivalued (e.g. weight group 11). This is consistent with the school of thought which holds that शृति positions are not necessarily precise interval values but denote a 'range' of intonational possibilities.

Scale Taxonomy

This section exists out of academic curiosity only and can be safely skipped in the first reading. It has no direct relevance to the rest of this work.

The current कर्नाटकी पद्धती's मेल taxonomy is extended as follows:

1. The first note is the Unison (1/1).
2. The second note is either a कोमल ऋषभ, तीव्र ऋषभ, or कोमल गाँधार.
3. The third note is either a तीव्र ऋषभ, कोमल गाँधार, or तीव्र गाँधार.
4. The fourth note is either the कोमल मध्यम or a तीव्र मध्यम.
5. The fifth note is either a तीव्र मध्यम or the पंचम.
6. The sixth note is either a कोमल धैवत, तीव्र धैवत, or कोमल निषाद.
7. The seventh note is either a तीव्र धैवत, कोमल निषाद, or तीव्र निषाद.
8. The selected notes have to be strictly in increasing order with a traversal path between each pair of neighbouring notes.

Each scale thus created is called a मेल following the current कर्नाटकी terminology. Note that some of the मेलs will not have the पंचम! However, at least one of the कोमल मध्यम or the पंचम is always present. No मेल has all three of the कोमल मध्यम, तीव्र मध्यम, and पंचम present because there is no such traversal path which encompasses all three clusters.

Each मेल can be given a unique identifier by concatenating the identifier of the individual notes that occur in the मेल.

The 42 options for the पूर्वाँग are listed below (the implicit S is dropped from the naming):

r1R1m
r1R1M2
r1g1m
r1g1M2
r1g2m
r1G1m
r1G1M2
r2R1m
r2R1M2
r2R3m
r2R3M4
r2g2m
r2g3m
r2g3M2
r2g3M4
r2G1m
r2G1M2
r2G3m
r2G3M4
R1g2m
R1G1m
R1G3M2
R2g1m
R2g1M2
R2g3m
R2g3M2
R2g3M4
R2G1m
R2G1M2
R2G2M2
R2G2M4
R2G3m
R2G3M4
R3g2m
R3G3m
R3G3M4
g1G1m
g1G1M2
g3G1m
g3G1M2
g3G3m
g3G3M4

The 42 options for the उत्तराँग are listed below:

M1d1D1
M1d1n1
M1d1n2
M1d1N1
M1d2n2
M1D1n2
M1D1N1
M1n1N1
M3d2n2
M3d3D1
M3d3D3
M3d3n2
M3d3n3
M3d3N1
M3d3N2
M3D1n2
M3D1N1
M3D3n2
M3D3N2
M3n3N1
M3n3N2
Pd1D1
Pd1n1
Pd1n2
Pd1N1
Pd3D1
Pd3D3
Pd3n2
Pd3n3
Pd3N1
Pd3N2
PD1n2
PD1N1
PD2n1
PD2n3
PD2N1
PD2N2
PD3n2
PD3N2
Pn1N1
Pn3N1
Pn3N2

The 5 'glue' options which connect the पूर्वाँग to the उत्तराँग are listed below:

mM1 - 21 पूर्वाँग options leading m, 8 उत्तराँग options trailing M1. Total 168.
mM3 - 21 पूर्वाँग options leading m, 13 उत्तराँग options trailing M3. Total 273.
mP - 21 पूर्वाँग options leading m, 21 उत्तराँग options trailing P. Total 441.
M2P - 13 पूर्वाँग options leading M2, 21 उत्तराँग options trailing P. Total 273.
M4P - 8 पूर्वाँग options leading M4, 21 उत्तराँग options trailing P. Total 168.

In all, this indicates that the TOTAL number of मेलs is 1323.


थाट् Taxonomy

This section exists out of academic curiosity only and can be safely skipped in the first reading. It has no direct relevance to the rest of this work.

The large number of मेलs can also be collapsed into a coarser taxonomy of 108 थाट्s. Following Bhatkhande's plan, this is done by not discriminating between the individual members of each स्वर cluster.

The 6 पूर्वाँग options are listed below:
rR
rg
rG
Rg
RG
gG

The 6 उत्तराँग options are listed below:
dD
dn
dN
Dn
DN
nN

The 3 मध्यम पंचम options are listed below:
mM
mP
MP

---

A Model for Implied Intonations in Classical हिन्दूस्तानी (Hindustani) Music

What follows is a collection of my scattered meditations on modelling the scales used in classical हिन्दूस्तानी (Hindustani) music. A key difference is that my work uses a purely combinatorial approach instead of the more conventional transpositions (e.g. cycle of fifths, pitch-translation of harmonic scales, etc.) used by earlier efforts.


Disclaimer

The स्वरs of classical हिन्दूस्तानी music are not fixed intonational positions; and there is much to be said about the handling ('attack', 'release') and ornamentation of स्वरs during राग विस्तार which I don't deal with at all. There is also a certain 'flexibility' inherent in the use of स्वरs depending on the performer's personal taste and mood. Nevertheless, it is my belief that each स्वर can be assigned one or more implied intonations because रागs can be identified even when there is wide deviation in the performed intonation. This suggests that the psycho-acoustical perception of intervals involves pattern matching to an ideal intonational centre.


Abstract

This work outlines a new model for scales pertinent to the present day practice of classical हिन्दूस्तानी music. The model is based on intervallic atoms that arise naturally in the overtone series implied by a tonic. Whereas the current nomenclature in classical हिन्दूस्तानी music hems to a chromatic sequence of twelve स्वर­-स्थानs, it is shown that the स्वर­-स्थानs are equivalence classes of notes which represent the implied intervals across all रागs. The value of each note is derived from relatively simple first principles.


On शृति and स्वर

There has been considerable controversy on the subjects of शृति and स्वर in the sphere of classical हिन्दूस्तानी musicology. Most, if not all, of the discussions on this are in vain because the two crucial terms, शृति and स्वर, are not always defined clearly; and when they are, the definition varies from person to person. Further more, with respect to the हिन्दूस्तानी पद्धती, it has been demonstrated by Jairazbhoy [Jai1963, Jai1995] and Levy [Lev1981] (and more recently by Krishnaswamy [Kri2003] for the कर्नाटकी पद्धती) that the range of intonation of a स्वर was variable between:

1. Two performers exploring the same राग.
2. Two intonations of the same स्वर by a given performer in the same राग.

Clearly then, a स्वर represents a cluster of intonational possibilities, possibly around an implied tonal centre, which varies according to
(i) the melodic context (including the attack/release specific to the स्वर / राग at hand); and
(ii) the intonation implied by the performer based on her personal interpretation.

The topic of शृति is best avoided since no two practitioners can agree on what these are.

The present work is partly motivated by an internal resistance to the oft-repeated २२-शृति model [Bha1984] which has no basis in actual practice, at least in modern times. Whether it had a basis in earlier times is also in question: it is impossible that the २२-शृति system, as described by मुनि भरत, could have existed without being equally tempered [Bha1984]. It is more likely that मुनि भरत's description of the २२-शृति system was a happy approximation (given the constraints of measurement and mathematics during his time) or a thought-experiment and should not be taken too literally.


The Overtone Scale and the Intervallic Atoms

Intonational variability in actual performance notwithstanding, it is instructive to consider whether specific intervals are implied either in the acoustic or the psycho­-acoustic domain. A tonic, established in the background by a drone, provides the beginnings of a justly intoned scale based on the (6­-limit) overtone series:

1/1, 6/5, 5/4, 4/3, 3/2, 5/3, 2/1

where the intervals between successive notes are:

6:5, 25:24, 16:15, 9:8, 10:9, 6:5

The intervals between the notes provide the intervallic atoms which can be treated as first class entities for the purposes of the present model:

25:24 - Small Semitone - s
16:15 - Just Semitone - S
9:8 - Major Tone - T

Note, that the 10:9 (Minor Tone) is not an atom since it is composed of the { s, S } pair. The 6:5 (Just Minor Third) similarly is composed of the { S, T } pair.

It is instructive that with a तान-पुरा tuned to the tonic and its पंचम (Perfect Fifth), or मध्यम (Just Fourth), the set of intervallic atoms obtained is { 25:24, 16:15, 27:25 }. This set of atoms eventually leads to a 'dense chromatic' scale with 67 notes to the octave which is rather unwieldy and impractical to reason with. In such a model, "anything goes". The situation is worse with a 7-limit overtone series for even just a tonic: we get { 36:35, 25:24, 21:20, 16:15 } as intervallic atoms and end up with a really dense chromatic scale with 207 notes to the octave ...

The span of an octave can then be represented by the interval sequence:

{ S, T }, s, S, T, { s, S } , { S, T }

A natural consequence of identifying these intervallic atoms is to wonder about the possibility of new scales created by shuffling the positions of these intervallic atoms in the span of an octave.


Scale Generation using the Intervallic Atoms

The following questions naturally arise:

• What kinds of genera can be constructed by bin-packing the intervallic atoms into the span of an octave?
• Which of these genera are permissible in the हिन्दूस्तानी पद्धती?

As seen above, an octave can be spanned by a set of { 3 Major Tones, 4 Just Semitones, and 2 Small Semitones }. In fact, this is the only set which can do so (see The Fundamental Theorem of Intervallic Atoms). This yields 9C3 * 6C4 = 1260 genera. However, 684 of these have neither the Just Fourth nor the Perfect Fifth. The latter genera are ruled out as potential constructors of 'मेलs' (parent scales) in the हिन्दूस्तानी पद्धती. The remaining 576 genera can be used to construct candidate मेलs.

Another way of modelling this is to consider the octave as two overlapping Perfect Fifth Intervals. The first one spans the Unison (1/1) to the Perfect Fifth (3/2), the second one spans the Just Fourth (4/3) to the Octave (2/1). The interval of overlap is the Major Tone (9:8). The Perfect Fifths are spanned by a unique set of { 2 Major Tones, 2 Just Semitones, 1 Small Semitone }. The complementary Just Fourths are spanned by a unique set of { 1 Major Tone, 2 Just Semitones, 1 Small Semitone }.

Bin-packing the Perfect Fifth yields 5C2 * 3C2 = 30 unique genera.
Bin-packing the Just Fourth yields 4C1 * 3C2 = 12 unique genera.

Thus, bin-packing the Octave in the manner described above yields 30*12 + 12*30 - 12*1*12 = 576 unique genera.

The image on the left shows the graphical view of the 576 genera. Each node represents a possible note (its interval ratio indicated by the label) and an arrow from one node to another represents the interval between the corresponding notes. A traversal from the Unison (1/1) to the Octave (2/1) maps a unique genera.

Note that the notes naturally cluster together into 12 groups (counting the Unison and the Octave in the same group) - which reflects the modern day classification of १२ स्वर-स्थानs. Interestingly enough, some notes in a given cluster differ from their nearest neighbour by the interval of a Comma (81:80, ~21.5c) or less. At worst, the difference between two nearest neighbours in a cluster is no greater than a Quartertone of Equal Temperament (50c).

Each cluster is given a name, and, inspired by 19th century terminology, they are:

षड्ज = { 1/1, 2/1 }
कोमल ऋषभ = { 25/24, 16/15 }
तीव्र ऋषभ = { 10/9, 9/8, 256/225 }
कोमल गाँधार = { 75/64, 32/27, 6/5 }
तीव्र गाँधार = { 5/4, 81/64, 32/25 }
कोमल मध्यम = { 675/512, 4/3, 27/20 }
तीव्र मध्यम = { 25/18, 45/32, 64/45, 36/25 }
पंचम = { 40/27, 3/2, 1024/675 }
कोमल धैवत = { 25/16, 128/81, 8/5 }
तीव्र धैवत = { 5/3, 27/16, 128/75 }
कोमल निषाद = { 225/128, 16/9, 9/5 }
तीव्र निषाद = { 15/8, 48/25 }

Note that the term शुद्ध is avoided completely because it suggests the existence of a 'standard' scale. Instead, कोमल is used to indicate 'flat' notes and तीव्र to indicate the corresponding 'sharp' ones.

It can't be stressed enough that these notes represent the tonal centres around which there is a certain 'flexibility' (or sloppiness?) allowed during the exploration of a राग. Thus, in actual practice, there would be significant variation in the exact note intoned by a performer. The model above represents an ideal for the implied intonation.

Adjustments for Contemporary Practice

In contemporary हिन्दूस्तानी music, the "शुद्ध" मध्यम is (acoustically & musically) always the Just Fourth (4/3), and the पंचम is always the Perfect Fifth (3/2). Now, the 40/27 and 1024/675 notes are a Comma, or less, away from the intonationally strong Perfect Fifth (3/2) and will always be construed as a mis-tuned Perfect Fifth (or, as a 'false' fifth) by any listener since the पंचम plays a vital role via it's strong consonance in the scale. Similarly, the 675/512 and 27/20 are a Comma, or less, away from the Just Fourth (4/3) and will always be construed as a mis-tuned Just Fourth (or, as a 'false' fourth) for the same reasons. In practice, no scale which contains any of these four 'false' notes as न्यास स्थानs (rest locations) would be viable in the context of present-day हिन्दूस्तानी music. [This does not mean that these 'false', or wolf, intervals wouldn't exist between two arbitrary notes in a राग. For instance, a 27:20 interval exists in a राग, like मेघ (?), which employs the 10/9 ऋषभ and the 3/2 पंचम.] However, these notes could definitely exist as leading grace embellishments to the पंचम or मध्यम.

On Septimal Notes

Clements suggests that septimal notes were inducted into हिन्दूस्तानी music as a result of Islamic influence [Cle1913]. Specifically, based on the work of Raosaheb Krishnaji Ballal Deval, Clements identifies the following notes: 21/20, 21/16, 63/40, and 7/4. However, I'm not entirely convinced that Indian musicians have an innate understanding of septimal harmonies/intervals. Rather, I'm certain that they naturally converge to the equivalent quintal/tertian interval.

In the model above, the equivalents for the septimal notes are: 25/24, 675/512, 25/16, and 225/128. Each of these notes is less than 14c away from its corresponding septimal note, and thus is approximated by the septimal note effectively.


Notation for the Notes

Each cluster is notated using a one letter roman symbol which represents its (transliterated) name. कोमल clusters are denoted by a lower-case letter, and the corresponding तीव्र clusters by the upper-case letter. Notes within a cluster are identified using integers suffixed to the cluster symbol in increasing order of interval size. The four 'false' notes are identified with -/+ signs as appropriate. The interval value in cents is noted in parenthesis.

षड्ज Cluster
S = 1/1 (0.00c), 2/1 (1200.0c)

कोमल ऋषभ Cluster
r1 = 25/24 (70.67c)
r2 = 16/15 (111.73c)

तीव्र ऋषभ Cluster
R1 = 10/9 (182.40c)
R2 = 9/8 (203.91c)
R3 = 256/225 (223.46c)

कोमल गाँधार Cluster
g1 = 75/64 (274.58c)
g2 = 32/27 (294.13c)
g3 = 6/5 (315.64c)

तीव्र गाँधार Cluster
G1 = 5/4 (386.31c)
G2 = 81/64 (407.82c)
G3 = 32/25 (427.37c)

कोमल मध्यम Cluster
m- = 675/512 (478.49c)
m = 4/3 (498.04c)
m+ = 27/20 (519.55c)

तीव्र मध्यम Cluster
M1 = 25/18 (568.72c)
M2 = 45/32 (590.22c)
M3 = 64/45 (609.78c)
M4 = 36/25 (631.28c)

पंचम Cluster
P- = 40/27 (680.45c)
P = 3/2 (701.96c)
P+ = 1024/675 (721.51c)

कोमल धैवत Cluster
d1 = 25/16 (772.63c)
d2 = 128/81 (792.18c)
d3 = 8/5 (813.69c)

तीव्र धैवत Cluster
D1 = 5/3 (884.36c)
D2 = 27/16 (905.87c)
D3 = 128/75 (925.42c)

कोमल निषाद Cluster
n1 = 225/128 (976.54c)
n2 = 16/9 (996.09c)
n3 = 9/5 (1017.60c)

तीव्र निषाद Cluster
N1 = 15/8 (1088.27c)
N2 = 48/25 (1129.33c)


Forward Consonances

All notes in the model have a note with which they form a consonance of the मध्यम (Just Fourth) or the पंचम (Perfect Fifth) with the following exceptions:

• G2 (81/64), m- (675/512), m+ (27/20), M2 (45/32), M4 (36/25) don't have a corresponding पंचम but they do have a मध्यम.
• Reciprocally, M1 (25/18), M3 (64/45), P- (40/27), P+ (1024/675), d2 (128/81) don't have a corresponding मध्यम but they do have a पंचम.
  

Each note in the model is thus a candidate for a वादी-संवादी pair for those who still adhere to the वादी-संवादी theory.


Future Work

Given any model for हिन्दूस्तानी music, one way to validate its practicality in reasoning about रागs is to synthesize specific राग based melodies from the model and subjectively assess whether they are identifiable as the intended राग. However, before that, there needs to be agreement on whether the choice of notes for a given राग is indeed accurate. Both these issues are closely related topics which need more analysis and research. As an example, consider the two scales below which can be generated from the model above:

1/1, 25/24, 75/64, 45/32, 3/2, 25/16, 15/8, 2/1

1/1, 16/15, 6/5, 36/25, 3/2, 8/5, 48/25, 2/1

Or, using the notation:

S, r1, g1, M2, P, d1, N1, S*

S, r2, g3, M4, P, d3, N2, S*

Both the above scales fall under the aegis of the modern तोड़ी ठाट (SrgMPdNS). However, does the first scale represent the canonical तोड़ी while the second मुल्तानी?

Another issue to resolve is exactly how much deviation around the tonal centres is allowable before advanced practitioners conclusively detect that a performer has become बे-सुर with respect to the राग being explored.

---

Sidebars

---

There are additional ruminations not directly related to the main text of this post. The section on "Weights-based grouping" is especially interesting.

---

References

---

[Bha1984] Pt. Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande, "Music Systems in India: A Comparative Study of Some of the Leading Music Systems of the 15th, 16th, 17th, & 18th Centuries", South Asia Books, 1984.

[Cle1913] Ernest Clements, "Introduction To The Study Of Indian Music: An Attempt To Reconcile Modern Hindustani Music With Ancient Musical Theory And To Propound An Accurate And Comprehensive Method Of Treatment Of The Subject Of Indian Musical Intonation", Longmans, Green, and Co., 1913.

[Jai1963] Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy, A. W. Stone, "Intonation in Present­ Day North Indian Classical Music", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1963. pp. 119­-132.

[Jai1995] ^^Electronic analysis has confirmed that there is variation in intonation from one musician to another, as well as for a single musician during the course of a performance^^, Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy, "The Rags of North Indian Music: Their Structure and Evolution", Popular Prakashan, 1995, pg 34.

[Kri2003] Arvindh Krishnaswamy, "Pitch Measurements versus Perception of South Indian Classical Music", Proceedings of the Stockholm Music Acoustics Conference (SMAC 03), 2003.

[Lev1981] Mark Levy, "Intonation in North Indian Music: A Select Comparison of Theories with Contemporary Practice". Biblia Impex Pvt. Ltd., 1981.

---

urdU verbs (ye) / उर्दू अफ़्`आल (य)

This is a list of non-compound hindUstAnI verbs that have the ye (ي) of the fArsI alphabet as the first letter. See my earlier post "A Deluge of Verbs ...?" for a background. This list was generated by mining the online version of Platts' Dictionary, and is a verbatim copy of the entries therein. This list may not be exhaustive & complete.

1 non-compound verb starting with the ye is listed below.

H ياچنا याचना yāćnā, or jāćnā, v.t. & int.=جاچنا jāćnā, q.v.

urdU verbs (ChHOTI he) / उर्दू अफ़्`आल (ह)

This is a list of non-compound hindUstAnI verbs that have the ChHOTI he (ه) of the fArsI alphabet as the first letter. See my earlier post "A Deluge of Verbs ...?" for a background. This list was generated by mining the online version of Platts' Dictionary, and is a verbatim copy of the entries therein. This list may not be exhaustive & complete.

144 non-compound verbs starting with the ChHOTI he are listed below.

H هاپنا हापना hāpnā, v.n. prop. hāṅpnā, q.v.

H هارنا हारना hārnā [har˚ = Prk. हारे(इ) or हार(इ), fr. S. हार 'loss,' &c., rt. हृ], v.n. To be defeated, be worsted, be overcome, be unsuccessful; to lose (in play, or in battle, &c.); to fail;--to be fatigued, or tired out; to become dispirited;--to become old or feeble;--v.t. To lose:--hār-jānā, v.n. intensive of hārnā:--hār-denā, v.t. (intens.) To lose; to squander; to gamble away:--baćan hārnā (-ko), To give one's word, to promise.

H هاڙنا हाड़ना hāṛnā (dialec.), v.t. To examine the correctness of (a pair of scales), or to test the accuracy of (weights and measures):--hāṛ-lenā, v.t. intens. of hāṛnā.

H هاکنا हाकना hāknā, v.t. (dialec.)=hāṅknā, q.v.

H هالنا हालना hālnā [hāl˚ = Prk. हल्ल(इ)=S. व्हल्य(ते), pass. (used actively) of rt. व्हल्], v.n. To move, shake, tremble, vibrate; to be agitated;--(gerund) shaking, trembling; ague-fit, paroxysm (e.g. yah dawā mat khānā tap-ke hālne-meṅ).

H هانپنا हांपना hāṅpnā [hāṅp˚ = Prk. हंप(इ)=धंप(इ), or धंपे(इ)=S. ध्मापय(ति), caus. of rt. ध्मा], v.n. To blow, puff, pant, be out of breath.

H هانپهنا हांफना hāṅphnā [hāṅp˚ = Prk. हंप(इ)=धंप(इ), or धंपे(इ)=S. ध्मापय(ति), caus. of rt. ध्मा], v.n. To blow, puff, pant, be out of breath.

H هانڐنا हांडना hāṅḍnā [hāṅḍ˚ prob. Prk. भंड(इ)=S. भण्ड(तें), rt. भण्ड्;--or=S. हिण्ड(ते), rt. हिण्ड्], v.n. To wander, ramble, stray about; to gad about (syn. bhaṭaknā, bhramnā).

H هانسنا हांसना hāṅsnā, v.n. (rustic or dialec.) =هنسنا haṅsnā, q.v.

H هانکنا हांकना hāṅknā [hāṅk˚ = Prk. हक्क(इ), or हक्के(इ), fr. S. हक्+कृ], v.n. & v.t. To cry out, shout, bawl (to, -ko);--to drive, urge on (a beast, by shouts and cries, &c.); to work (by driving); to carry on, to conduct;--to drive out or off or away;--to tell, utter, bring out, pour forth (e.g. jhak hāṅknā, 'to utter ravings, to rave'; jhūṭī-saććī hāṅknā, 'to utter or pour forth lies'; dūn-kī hāṅknā, 'to utter boasting, to boast';--cf. P. rāndan; sukhan rāndan, &c.);--to drive off (flies, &c., with a fan), to use (a fan), to fan:--hāṅk-denā, v.t. intens. of and=hāṅknā:--dām ʻhāṅknā (-ke liye), To ask an exorbitant price (for).

H هبکنا हबकना habaknā, v.t. &c.=hapaknā, q.v.

H هپرانا हपराना haparānā or haprānā [˚rā, prob. caus. aff.; or=Prk. dim. ड=S. र+ānā, as in haphhaphānā q.v.], v.t. To eat with a noise; to munch:--haprīke khānā, v.t. Idem.

H هپکنا हपकना hapaknā [hapak˚, prob. = Prk. हप्पक्के(इ), fr. S. त्र्हप्+कृ; or akin to jhapak˚, q.v.], v.t. To swallow suddenly and with a noise, to gobble, to bolt;--v.n. To wonder, marvel:--hapak-lenā, v.t. (intens.) To gulp down, to gobble up.

H هپهہپهانا हफहफाना haphhaphānā [haphhaph˚, by redupl. of hāṅph(nā), q.v.+ ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+ nā], v.n. To blow, pant, gasp.

H هتنا हतना hatnā [hat˚ = Prk. हत्ते(इ) or हत्त(इ), fr. हत्त=S. हत, p.p.p. of rt. हन्], v.t. To slay, kill, to slaughter (i.q. hannā, q.v.).

H هتهوڙيانا हथौड़ियाना hathauṛiyānā [hathauṛiya˚ = hathauṛī, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To strike or beat with a hammer, to hammer.

H هتهيانا हथियाना hathiyānā (hathiyā, q.v. + ā = āw, &c., as in hathauṛiyānā, q.v.), v.t. To take hold of, to seize; to lay hands on; to occupy; to appropriate; to purloin, pilfer, pocket; to obtain by fraud.

H هتيانا हतियाना hatiyānā, v.t.=hathiyānā, q.v.

H هٿانا हटाना haṭānā (caus. of haṭnā, q.v.), v.t. To take away, to remove; to move out of the way, put back, put aside;--to cause to recede, to drive back or off, to repel; to worst, foil;--to put off, postpone:--haṭā-denā, v.t. (intens.) To move aside or out of the way;--to drive back, to repel, repulse, &c. (see haṭānā).

H هٿکانا हटकाना haṭkānā (caus. of haṭaknā, q.v.) v.t. To cause to retreat, to drive back, to repulse;--to check, stop, hinder, prevent;--(dialec.) to shout to in defiance, to challenge;--to accost.

H هٿکنا हटकना haṭaknā [haṭak˚, prob.=Prk. हटक्के(इ), fr. S. हृत (p.p.p. of rt. हृ)+कृ], v.n. To be sent or driven back, to be repulsed; to be checked or stopped; to retreat;--to move;--to stop;--to be backward; to have a misgiving; to hesitate, to shrink (from, -se), be averse (to); to boggle.

H هٿنا हटना haṭnā [haṭ˚, prob.=S. हृत, p.p.p. of rt. हृ], v.n. To move out of the way (of); to move away (from, -se), to fall back, to retire, recede; to move, stir, or budge (from);--to be driven back, be repulsed; to retreat;--to shrink or recoil (from), to be averse (to); to be sated or cloyed;--to go back (from), withdraw, back out (of);--to decline, or fall away (from), to backslide;--to be put off, be postponed;--to die:--haṭ-jānā, v.n. (intens.) To move away, to go aside; to retreat, &c.:--jī haṭ-jānā (-se), The mind to be averse (from); to be sated, &c.

H هٿنا हटना haṭnā (fr. haṭ, q.v.), v.n. To be pertinacious, or obstinate, &c. (i.q. haṭh karnā).

H هٿهرنا हठरना haṭharnā (fr. haṭhar), v.n. To hurry; to be impatient.

H هٿهنا हठना haṭhnā (fr. haṭh, q.v.), v.n. To be pertinacious, or importunate, &c. (i.q. haṭh karnā, q.v.s.v. haṭh).

H هچکانا हिचकाना hićkānā (causat. of hićaknā, q.v.), v.t. To seize and take (from) violently; to pluck; to snatch (from);--to pull or jerk up or away;--to jerk; to jolt.

H هچکچانا हिचकिचाना hićkićānā [hićkićā˚, by redupl. of khic˚ (=khiṅć˚ = kheṅć, rt. of kheṅćnā, q.v.) + ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā], v.n. To draw back; to waver, hesitate; to doubt, be in suspense; to falter; to hum and haw;--to wriggle; to hitch.

H هچکنا हिचकना hićaknā [hićak˚, prob. fr. hića (=khića = kheṅć, rt. of kheṅćnā)+S. कृ], v.n. To draw back (from, -se), to shrink (from), to stop, to hesitate, to boggle, to waver; to turn (from) in loathing or aversion; to decline;--to jerk, to move by jerks, to hitch, to hobble; to wriggle, twist (cf. khisaknā).

H هچکيانا हिचकियाना hićkiyānā [hićkiyā˚ = hićkī+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā], v.n. To hiccough.

H هچمچانا हिचमिचाना hićmićānā, v.n. (dialec.)=hićkićānā, q.v.

H هچنا हिचना hićnā (hić˚ = kheṅć(nā), q.v.), v.n.=hićaknā, q.v.

H هدرانا हदराना hadrānā (caus. of hadarnā), v.t. To cause to shake or tremble (by a shock or blow, &c.); to jolt;--to shake, to agitate.

H هدرنا हदरना hadarnā [hadar˚, prob.=Prk. हदड=S. हत (p.p.p. rt. हन्)+र], v.n. (dialec.) To shake tremulously (as from a shock or concussion), to tremble, shiver, quake; to vibrate;--to be jolted.

H هدهدانا हिदहिदाना hidhidānā, or हदहदाना hadhadānā(?), v.n. (dialec.) To become melted, or soft, or flaccid; to lose firmness and soundness.

H هديانا हदियाना hadiyānā [perhaps fr. Prk. हद=S. हत, rt. हन्; or fr. Prk. हद्धि=S. हा+धिक्], v.n. To be agitated (about), to be alarmed or apprehensive (of, -se), to be timid or shy (of); to tremble (at), to shrink (from), to hesitate, to scruple (cf. hadarnā).

H هڐکنا हुडकना huḍaknā, v.n.=هڙکنا huṛaknā, q.v.

H هڐيانا हड्डियाना haḍḍiyānā, or हडियाना haḍiyānā [haḍḍiyā˚ = haḍḍī+ā = āw = Prk. आव=आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā], v.n. To ossify.

H هرانا हराना harānā, or हिराना hirānā [harā˚ or hirā˚ = harāw˚ or hirāw˚ = Prk. हाराव(इ)=S. हार (rt. हृ)+caus. aug. आपय(ति)], v.t. To defeat, overcome, overthrow, conquer; to win; to beat (at any game, &c.), to foil, worst; to hunt down;--to outwit; to weary, tire out;--(hirānā) to lose, to mislay:--hirānā, or hirā-jānā, v.n. To be lost; to be mislaid; to be missing:--harā-denā, v.t. intens. of harānā.

H هراونا हरावना harāwnā or harāʼonā, or हिरावना hirāwnā or hirāʼonā, v.t.=harānā, q.v.:--hirāwnā, v.n.=hirānā, q.v.

H هرسنا हरसना harasnā, or हरिसना harisnā [haris˚ = Prk. हरिस(इ)=S. हर्ष(ति), rt. हृष्], v.n. (dialec.)=harshnā, q.v.

H هرشنا हर्षना harshnā [harsh˚ = S. हर्ष(ति), rt. हृष्], v.n. To be delighted, or glad, or pleased; to rejoice, exult; to be happy;--to blow, to bloom (as a flower).

H هرکانا हरकाना harkānā (caus. of haraknā), v.t.=هڙکانا haṛkānā, q.v.

H هرکانا हिरकाना hirkānā, v.t. (dialec.) To join;--to move.

H هرکنا हरकना haraknā, v.n. (dialec.)=هڙکنا haṛaknā, q.v.

H هرکنا हिरकना hiraknā (prob. i.q. haraknā), v.n. (dialec.) To meet (with);--to turn away (from), to feel aversion (for), to loathe;--to scamper.\

H هرکهنا हरखना harakhnā, v.n.=harasnā = harshnā, qq.v.

H هرنا हरना harnā [Prk. हरणअं; S. हरणीयं, rt. हृ], v.t. To take, seize; to take away, to remove; to take by force, to carry off; to kidnap; to steal, plunder, spoil, destroy;--to captivate, charm, bewitch.

H هرنا हुरना hurnā (cf. hūlnā), v.t. To beat down (as paviors).

H هرهرانا हुरहुराना hurhurānā [hurhurā˚ = S. घुर्घुरक+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+ nā], v.n. To growl (as a tiger, &c.), &c.; to purr (as a cat); to purl (as a brook);--to shiver (as in ague).

H هريانا हरियाना hariyānā [hariyā, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.) + nā], v.n. To become verdant, to wax green, &c. (i.q. harā-honā, q.v.).

H هريانا हरियाना hariyānā (hariy˚, prob. for harī, fem. part. of harnā+ānā as in the preceding), v.t. (dialec.) To stop, to prevent.

H هڙبڙانا हड़बड़ाना haṛbaṛānā [haṛbaṛ˚, perhaps fr. S. हूल (rt. हूल्) by redupl. or alliteration (cf. hālnā);--or akin to khalbal˚, or ghabr(ānā), qq.v.;--˚ānā = ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā], v.n. To be flurried, to be confused, to be agitated; to be in consternation;--to be in a hurry; to hurry; to be precipitate;--to start up from a troubled dream or sleep; to be fidgety, or restless;--to rumble (as the bowels);--v.t. To flurry, to confuse, to perplex.

H هڙکانا हड़काना haṛkānā (caus. of haṛaknā), v.t. To cause to long for;--to tantalize;--to drive away, turn out; to discourage, deter; to estrange;--to stop, prevent, forbid;--to scorch (prop. harkānā).

H هڙکنا हड़कना haṛaknā, v.n. To feel a great desire (for), to have a longing (for), to long, crave;--to grieve (for), to fret, pine;--to be driven away; to be kept at a distance; to be estranged;--to be discouraged, or deterred;--to stop;--to remove;--to be scorched (in this sense haraknā is the usual form).

H هڙکنا हुड़कना huṛaknā, v.n. To fret, to pine (i.q. haṛaknā);--to peep (i.q. hulaknā).

H هڙکنا हुड़कना huṛaknā, v.t. (dialec.) To remember.

H هڙنا हड़ना haṛnā, v.n. (dialec.) To be tested (as the accuracy of a weight, &c.).

H هڙهڙانا हड़हड़ाना haṛhaṛānā, हुड़हुड़ाना huṛhuṛānā, or हिड़हिड़ाना hiṛhiṛānā [haṛhaṛ˚ = halhal˚, by redupl. fr. S. हूल(ति), rt. हूल्; cf. haṛbaṛānā], v.n. To shudder, to shiver (as in an ague, &c.), to tremble, shake, flutter (from excitement, &c.);--to crash; to rattle; to twang (as a bow-string); to rumble;--to hurry (i.q. haṛbaṛānā).

H هسانا हसाना hasānā (caus. of hasnā), v.t.=haṅsānā, q.v.

H هسنا हसना hasnā, v.n. To laugh, &c. (i.q. haṅsnā, q.v.).

H هشکارنا हुशकारना huśkārnā (hush + kārnā, qq.v.), v.t. To scare away (birds, &c.), to put to flight;--to halloo, to set (dogs) on, to incite.

H هکارنا हकारना hakārnā, v.t.=هنکارنا haṅkārnā, q.v.

H هکالنا हकालना hakālnā, v.t. (dialec.)=hakārnā.

H هکاونا हकावना hakāwnā, or hakāʼonā, v.t.=haṅkāwnā, q.v.

H هکبکانا हकबकाना hakbakānā [hak-bak, the weak form of hakkā-bakkā, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.) + nā], v.n. To be dumb-foundered; to become confused, or irresolute; to be aghast.

H هکلانا हकलाना haklānā (haklā, q.v.+ānā, as in hakbakānā, q.v.), v.n. To stammer, stutter, falter:--haklā-ke bolnā, v.n.=haklānā.

H هگانا हगाना hagānā (caus. of hagnā), v.t. To cause to go to stool; to produce action of the bowels; to purge.

H هگنا हगना hagnā [hag˚ = Prk. हग्ग(इ); fr. S. हद्+कृ], v.n. To go to stool, to evacuate; to dung, to mute.

H هلارنا हिलारना hilārnā, v.t. (dialec. or rustic)=hilānā, q.v.;--v.n.=hilornā (?), q.v.

H هلانا हिलाना hilānā, (dialec.) हलाना halānā (caus. of hilnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to shake, or rock, or vibrate, &c.; to shake, rock, stir, move, agitate, wag;--to familiarize, inure; to domesticate, tame.

H هلانا हिलाना hilānā (caus. of helnā), v.t. To cause to swim.

H هلبلانا हलबलाना halbalānā, v.n. (dialec.)=haṛbaṛānā, q.v.;--v.t. To impair.

H هلپنا हलपना halapnā [halap˚ = Prk. हलप्प(इ)=S. व्हलाप्य(ते), caus. pass. of rt. व्हल्], v.n. To toss about, to tumble about, to flounder;--to shudder, shiver (in ague, &c.).

H هلرانا हलराना halrānā [prob. a caus. form of hālnā, q.v.), v.t. (dialec.) To shake; to toss up and down, to dandle, play with, amuse.

H هلراونا हलरावना halrāwnā [prob. a caus. form of hālnā, q.v.), v.t. (dialec.) To shake; to toss up and down, to dandle, play with, amuse.

H هلسانا हुलसना hulsānā (caus. of hulasnā), v.t. To gladden, delight, rejoice, exhilarate, cheer; to encourage, inspirit, inspire with hope of;--to stir up, excite, stimulate.

H هلسنا हुलसना hulasnā [hulas˚ = Prk. उल्लस(इ)=S. उल्लस(ति), rt. लस् with उद्], v.n. To be gladdened, be rejoiced, be pleased or delighted, be cheered, &c. (see hulsānā); to rejoice.

H هلکارنا हुलकारना hulkārnā (see hulaknā), v.t. To incite, to set on (as cocks, &c., to fight), to halloo on (as a dog on a bull, &c.).

H هلکانا हलकाना halkānā [halkā, q.v. + ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आ (caus. aug.) + nā], v.t. To lighten (i.q. halkā karnā).

H هلکانا हलकाना halkānā (caus. of halaknā), v.t. To cause to move; to spur on, to incite, to abet.

H هلکنا हलकना halaknā [Prk. हलक्क(इ), fr. S. व्हल+कृ], v.n. To move.

H هلکنا हिलकना hilaknā [Prk. हिलक्क(इ), fr. S. व्हृ+कृ; cf. hilnā], v.n. To writhe, to suffer contortions (from affliction or pain), to be contorted, or convulsed;--to clutch, to cling (to); cf. hilagnā.

H هلکنا हुलकना hulaknā [Prk. हुड्डक्के(इ), fr. S. हूड्+कृ; cf. hūlnā], v.t. To rush upon, to attack, to charge;--to search;--v.n. To peep (i.q. huṛaknā).

H هلکورنا हिलकोरना hilkornā, or हलकोरना halkornā (akin to hilaknā), v.t. To gather up, collect, accumulate;--to shake, agitate; to disturb; to confound, perplex;--v.n. To fluctuate; to waver;--to billow, surge.

H هلگانا हिलगना hilgānā (caus. of hilagnā), v.t. To suspend, to tie loosely (to, -se), to hang, to attach; to keep dangling;--to cause or enable (one) to obṭain employment, to put (one) into a berth or post:--hilgā-denā, v.t. intens. of and=hilgānā.

H هلگنا हिलगना hilagnā (prob. a var. form of hilaknā, q.v.), v.n. To be suspended, to be hung on; to be entangled or involved;--to hang (by or to); to cling or cleave (to), to stick, to adhere;--to be undetermined or undecided; to be wavering, or in a state of vacillation.

H هلنا हिलना hilnā [hil˚ = Prk. हिर(इ) or हिल(इ)=S. व्हर(ति), rt. व्हृ], v.n. To shake, move, stir; to heave; to go (or to sway) to and fro, to rock; to vibrate; to tremble;--to be moved, to be agitated;--to be familiarized; to be domesticated, to be tamed:--hil-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=hilnā.

H هلورنا हिलोरना hilornā, (dialec.) हलोरना halornā. (see hilor), v.n. To shake; to swing or rock to and fro; to be agitated;--to wave, billow, surge; to eddy;--v.t. To shake together; to gather up, to collect, accumulate.

H هلہلانا हलहलाना halhalānā, v.n. To shake, shiver, shudder, &c. (i.q. harharānā, q.v.);--v.t. To cause to shake or tremble, &c.; to shake;--to imprecate, curse.

H هليانا हलियाना haliyānā, or हुलियाना huliyānā [haliy˚, prob.=Prk. हल्लिआ (see hālnā)+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.) + nā], v.n. To heave (as the stomach); to feel nausea, to nauseate (syn. matlānā).

H هليانا हुलियाना huliyānā (huliy˚, for hūlī (fr. hūl-nā, q.v.)+ānā, as in the preceding), v.t. To gore; to butt.

H همسانا हुमसाना humsānā, v.t. (dialec.) To scare;--to raise.

H همکنا हुमकना humaknā [humak˚, prob.=Prk. धुवक्क (इ), fr. S. धाव+कृ], v.n. To rush (upon, -par); to make an attack (upon), to assault; to leap forward; to stretch forward;--to make spasmodic efforts at walking, to attempt to walk (as a child;--also humak-kar ćalnā).

H همگنا हुमगना humagnā, v.n. A dialec. form of humaknā, q.v.

H هنا हन्ना hannā, v.t. See هننا hannā.

H هنا हुन्ना hunnā, v.t. See هننا hunnā.

H هنپانا हंपाना haṅpānā (caus. of hāṅpnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to blow or pant; to put out of breath.

H هنپنا हंपना haṅpnā, v.n.=هانپنا hāṅpnā, q.v.

H هنپهنا हंफना haṅphnā, v.n.=hāṅphnā = hāṅpnā, q.v.

H هندورنا हिंदोरना hiṅdornā [or hiṅdolnā; prob. fr. S. हिन्दोल], v.t. To puddle.

H هندولنا हिंदोलना hindolnā, v.t.=hindornā, q.v.

H هنڐانا हंडाना haṅḍānā (caus. of hānḍnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to roam or to wander; to send or drive forth or out; to expel, banish; to disgrace by public exposure, &c. (as by taking one round a city on an ass);--to take or move round (syn. ghumānā).

H هنسانا हंसाना haṅsānā (caus. of haṅsnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to laugh; to tickle, to please:--haṅsā-denā, v.t. intens. of and=haṅsānā.

H هنسنا हंसना haṅsnā [haṅs˚ = Prk. हस(इ) = S. हस(ति), rt. हस्], v.n. To laugh, to smile; to be merry; to jest, joke, make fun;--to laugh (at, -par), to make fun (of); to jeer, ridicule, deride;--s.m. Laughing, laughter;--laugher; ridiculer; jester;--adj. Risible:--haṅs-uṭhnā, v.n. To burst out laughing:--haṅs-denā, v.n. (intens.), To laugh out; to laugh.

H هنسوڙنا हंसोड़ना hāṅsoṛnā (fr. haṅsoṛ), v.n. (dialec.) To play the part of a wag or facetious person; to practise facetiousness or merriment.

H هنکاٿنا हंकाटना haṅkāṭnā, v.t. (dialec.)=haṅkārnā, q.v.

H هنکارنا हंकारना haṅkārnā [haṅkār˚ = Prk. हक्कार(इ), or हक्कारे(इ)=S. हक्कारय(ति), denom. fr. हक्कार, fr. हक्], v.n. To call, bawl, halloo;--v.t. To call to, to bawl to; to halloo after (as in the chase);--to brave;--to drive (oxen, &c.); to drive away, to keep off (by shouting); to expel;--to start or set off (a cart, carriage, or train, &c.);--to put off (a boat); to hoist or set (sail, in order to put off).

H هنکانا हंकाना haṅkānā [haṅkā˚ = haṅkāw˚ = Prk. हक्काव(इ), or हक्कावे(इ), fr. S. हक्+कृ, with caus. aug. āpi], v.n. & t.=hāṅknā, and haṅkārnā, qq.v.

H هنکالنا हंकालना haṅkālnā, v.t. & n. (dialec.)=haṅkārnā, q.v.

H هنکاونا हंकावना haṅkāwnā, haṅkāʼonā, (dialec.) v.n. & t.=haṅkānā, q.v.

H هنکرانا हंकराना haṅkrānā, v.t. & n. (dialec.)=haṅkārnā, q.v.

H هنکلانا हंकलाना haṅklānā, v.n. corr. of haklānā, q.v.

H هنکنا हुनकना hunaknā [prob. fr. S. हुम्+कृ], v.n. To sob; to weep.

H هننا हनना hannā [han˚ = Prk. हण(इ); S. हन्ति (but Vedic also I cl. हनति), rt. हन्], v.t. To strike, smite; to kill, slay, destroy, murder.

H هننا हनना hannā [han˚ prob.=S. भण(ति), rt. भण्], v.n. To speak, to break silence (e.g. kućh hantā hai na bhantā hai):--hannā-bhannā (also hanaknā-bhanaknā), v.n.=hannā.

H هننا हुनना hunnā [hun˚ = Prk. हुण(इ) or धुण(इ)=S. धुनो(ति), rt. धू], v.t. To offer up, to sacrifice.

H هنہنانا हिनहिनाना hinhinānā, (dialec.) हिंहिंनाना hiṅhiṅnānā [hinhinā˚ = S. हिम्, redupl.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.) + nā], v.n. To neigh; to whinny;--(as a gerund) s.m. Neighing.

H هوآنا होआना ho-ānā, v.n. See s.v. هونا honā.

H هوانا हवाना hawānā, or हौआना hauʼānā [prob. S. हो or हौ + ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā], v.n. (dialec.) To scream, screech.

H هوجانا होजाना ho-jānā, v.n. See s.v. honā.

H هوچکنا होचुकना ho-ćuknā, v.n. See s.v. honā.

H هوچلنا होचलना ho-ćalnā, v.n. See s.v. honā.

H هوچنا हूचना hūćnā [hūć˚, prob.=S. हूर्छ(ति), rt. हुर्छ 'to go crookedly'], v.n. To go wide (of the mark), to miss, to err, to mistake.

H هوشکارنا होशकारना hośkārnā (prob. hush, vocat. part., q.v.+kārnā), v.t. To disappoint, to baulk.

H هوکنا हूकना hūknā (cf. hūćnā, and ćūknā), v.n. To go or fall wide (of the mark), to fail to hit, to miss; to make a mistake; to err; to slip.

H هوکنا हूकना hūknā [prob. hūk˚ = Prk. हुक्क(इ)=S. हू+कृ], v.n. To cry or sob from pain; to cry; sob; to fret, pine.

H هوکنا हौकना hauknā, v.n.=هونکنا hauṅknā, q.v.

H هولکنا हूलकना hūlaknā, v.n. To peep (i.q. hulaknā, q.v.

H هولنا हूलना hūlnā [hūl˚ = Prk. हूड(इ) or हूडे(इ)=S. हूडय(ति), caus. of rt. हूड्], v.t. To drive (as an ox, or an elephant), to urge forward; to impel; to goad; to thrust; to push; to stab;--to rush upon, to attack;--v.n. To thrust (at, -par);--to rush (upon):--hūl-denā, v.t. intens. of and=hūlnā.

H هومنا होमना homnā (fr. hom), v.t. To make the oblation (of clarified butter, &c.) which characterizes the hom.

H هونا होना honā [ho˚ = Prk. हो(इ), or हुव(इ), or हव(इ) or भव(इ)=S. भव(ति), rt. भू], v n. To be, to exist; to subsist; to be born; to become; to attain (to);--to come; to accrue, result; to be effected, be accomplished; to be committed (as sin, fault, &c.);--to come to pass, to take place, to happen, occur; to turn out, to prove to be, to prove;--to serve, answer, do; to succeed;--to pass as;--to stand (for);--to belong (to);--to come to an end, to be over; to cease, to stop, to desist; to die (in these senses, gen. ho-jānā);--to be exhausted, (vulg.) to be done up;--(as a gerund) s.m. Being; becoming; existence; possibility;--adj. Possible:--ho-ānā, v.n. To become all at once; to come forth, or to come forth suddenly; to spring up, to arise:--ho-baiṭhnā, v.n. To be laid up (with);--to settle down as; to set up for; to pass oneself off (as):--ho-jānā, v.n. To become; to be born, &c. (i.q. honā, of which it is the intens. form);--to be and go; to have been (chiefly in the past, e.g. ho gayā, 'he has been and gone, or he has been'):--ho-ćuknā (completive), v.n. To be finished, be completed; to come to an end; to have taken place; to pass, to have elapsed;--to be all over;--to pass away, to die;--to be already; to be irrevocably or positively:--ho-ćalnā, v.n. To set in, begin, commence;--to be well advanced; to be well in hand; to be approaching completion, to be nearly finished or done:--ho-rahnā, v.n. To be; to become; to remain, continue, keep; to remain or abide as;--to come into possession, to abide or remain in the possession (of, e.g. māl bahuterā phir ho-rahegā):--ho-saknā (Potential), v.n. To be possible of accomplishment; to be possible, or practicable:--ho-guẕarnā, v.n. To come to pass;--to be finished or done, to be over (i.q. ho-jānā):--ho-lenā, v.n. (intens.) To be completed; to be perfected; to become thoroughly;--to be born;--to betake oneself, to go (in company with;--e.g. kisī-ke pīćhe ho-lenā, 'to go behind or after anyone,' 'to follow':--kisī-ke sāth, or saṅg ho-lenā, 'to go along with, or to accompany anyone'):--ho-nikalnā, v.n. To pass, pass by or near; to turn up (at or by):--honā-na-honā, s.m. The being or not being; existence and non-existence:--honā ho so ho, Happen what will or may;--neck or nothing:--hone-jog, adj. Fit or worthy to be or take place; likely to be or to happen; possible;--promising:--hone-kā (f. -kī), That is to be; future;--likely to be, possible:--hone-wālā, or hone-hārā, adj. (f. -ī), Being, existent, occurrent;--about to be, on the point of happening, impending, imminent; to be expected to result; eventual;--what is to be, or to happen, &c. (i.q. honhār, q.v.).

H هونسنا हौंसना hauṅsnā, or हूंसना hūṅsnā (fr. hauṅs), v.n. To be covetous; to be envious;--to cast an evil eye (upon, -ko).

H هونکنا हौंकना haūṅknā, (dialec.) होंकना hoṅknā (i.q. dhauṅknā, q.v.), v.n. To puff and blow; to breathe hard; to pant; to gasp.

H هہنانا हिहिनाना hihinānā, v.n. A dialec. form of hinhinānā, q.v.

H هيڐنا हीडना hīḍnā, v.t. (dialec. Mār.)=hernā, q.v.

H هيرانا हेराना herānā, v.t. causat. of hernā, q.v.

H هيرنا हेरना hernā [her˚ prob. for aher˚ = S. आखेट;--or perhaps akin to S. हृ; cf. also bhālnā], v.t. To see, observe; to look closely into; to spy out; to peer or pry into;--to look after; to search for; to hunt, chase, pursue;--to catch; to stop.

H هيلنا हीलना hīlnā, 1˚ v.t. (dialec.)=hilānā, q.v.;--2˚ v.n. (dialec. or a corr. form)=hilnā, q.v.

H هيلنا हेलना helnā (prob. akin to hilnā), v.n. To swim; to float.

H هينچنا हींचना hīṅćnā, v.t.=khīṅćnā, q.v.

H هينسنا हींसना hīṅsnā [hīṅs˚ = Prk. हीस(इ); S. हेष(ते), rt. हेष्], v.n. To neigh; to whinny; to make a noise as a horse when kicking; to scream; to bray.

H هينکارنا हींकारना hīṅkārnā [fr. S. हिङ्कार, rt. हिङ्कृ], v.n. To low (as cattle); to bellow, to roar.

H هينگانا हेंगाना heṅgānā [heṅgā+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā], v.t. To harrow.

H هيننا हीनना hīnnā, v.n. (dialec.)=hinhinānā, q.v.

urdU verbs (vAv) / उर्दू अफ़्`आल (व)

This is a list of non-compound hindUstAnI verbs that have the vAv (و) of the fArsI alphabet as the first letter. See my earlier post "A Deluge of Verbs ...?" for a background. This list was generated by mining the online version of Platts' Dictionary, and is a verbatim copy of the entries therein. This list may not be exhaustive & complete.

50 non-compound verbs starting with the vAv are listed below.

H وادنا वाद्ना wādnā (prob. fr. S. वाद), v.n.=bādnā, q.v.

H وارنا वारना wārnā [wār˚ = Prk. वार(इ) or वारे(इ)=S. वारय(ति), caus. of rt. वृ], v.t. To surround, encompass, encircle; to go round;--to ward off, keep off; to avert (from. -se); to wave (anything) round or over (one) as a means of averting (evil, &c.), or as a votive offering; to offer (in sacrifice, &c.);--to devote oneself (for).

H واسنا वासना wāsnā, v.t.=bāsnā, q.v.

H وبهانا विभाना vibhānā [vibhā˚ = S. विभा(ति), rt. भा with वि], v.n. To shine or gleam forth; to become visible or manifest, to appear.

H وتانا विताना witānā, v.t. prop. بتانا bitānā, q.v.

H وترارنا वित्रारना witrārnā [witrār˚, prob.=S. वितारय(ति), caus. of rt. वि+तॄ], v.t. To carry safely through or over, to rescue, save, deliver.

H وٿوٿانا वटवटाना waṭwaṭānā, v.n. (dialec.) To talk nonsense, to prate, babble, jabber, gabble, clack.

H وچارنا विचारना wićārnā [wićār˚ = Prk. विचार(इ) or विचारे(इ)=S. विचारय(ति), caus. of वि+चर्], v.t. To think, consider, &c. (see bićārnā, the pop. form).

H وچلنا विचलना vićalnā [S. विचलनीयं, rt. वि+ चल्], v.n. To move about, to move to and fro; to move, shift, slip, become displaced; to waver, totter, to be unsteady; to turn, bend; to deviate, swerve (from), to go astray; to commit an infringement or violation (of, -se), to break one's promise.

H وچوچانا वचवचाना waćwaćānā [waćwaćā˚ = wać-wać, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि caus. aug. +nā], v.n. (dialec.) To babble, prate, twaddle, gabble, talk nonsense.

H ودارنا विदारना widārnā [widār˚ = Prk. विदार(इ), or विदारे(इ)=S. विदारय(ति), rt. वि+दॄ], v.t. To tear, rend, &c. (i.q. bidārnā, q.v.).

H ودرنا वदरना wadarnā (fr. wadar, q.v.), v.n. (Dakh.) To babble, jabber, prate, talk nonsense.

H ودرنا विदरना widarnā (see the trans. widārnā), v.n. To be torn or rent asunder; to burst open, to burst, split, go asunder.

H ودوشنا विदूषना widūshnā [widūsh˚ = S. विदूषय(ति), rt. वि+दुष्], v.t. To corrupt, defile, contaminate; to disgrace; to blame, censure, calumniate, revile, abuse.

H وراجنا विराजना wirājnā [wirāj˚ = S. विराज(ति), rt: राज् with वि], v.t. & v.n.=birājnā, q.v.

H ورچنا विरचना wiraćnā [wirać˚ = S. विरचय(ति), rt. वि+रच्], v.t. To arrange; to construct, contrive; to make, &c. (see viraćan, and biraćnā).

H ورشانا वर्षाना varshānā, v.t. See the pop. form barsānā.

H ورشنا वर्षना varshnā, v.n. See the pop. form barasnā.

H ورغلانا warg̠alānā, ورغلاننا warg̠alānna [fr. Pers. warg̠alānīdan = bar-g̠alān-īdan;--bar, prep. or prefix, q.v.+ g̠alān (with caus. aff.), fr. S. गर् (गृ, गरति); or घर् (घृ, घरति)], v.t. To deceive, inveigle, decoy, entice, seduce, tempt, incite, instigate, actuate, provoke, exasperate.

H ورننا वर्णना varṇnā [varṇ˚ = S. वर्णय(ति), fr. वर्णा], v.t. To explain, describe, relate, tell, narrate; to praise, extol (i.q. varṇan karnā).

H وستارنا विस्तारना wistārnā [wistār˚ = S. विस्तारय (ति), caus. of rt. वि+स्तृ], v.t. To spread, extend, enlarge, expand, diffuse, develop, &c. (i.q. bistārnā; vistār (or bistār) karnā; see vistār).

H وسرانا विसराना wisrānā, v.t.=bisrānā, q.v.

H وکسنا विकसना wikasnā, v.n.=بکسنا bikasnā, q.v.

H وکهالنا वखालना wakhālnā, v.t. dialec. forms of ukhāl, and ukhālnā, qq.v.

H ولاپنا विलापना wilāpnā (fr. vilāp), v.n. To weep, wail, &c. (i.q. vilāp karnā).

H ولاسنا विलासना wilāsnā (fr. vilās), v.n.=vilās karnā, q.v.

H ولسنا विलसना wilasnā, v.n.=بلسنا bilasnā, q.v.

H ولمبانا विलम्बाना wilambānā (caus. of wilambnā), v.t.=bilmānā, q.v.

H ولمبنا विलम्बना wilambnā [wilamb˚ = S. विलम्ब(ते)], v.n.=bilambnā, q.v.

H ولوڙنا विलोड़ना wiloṛnā [wiloṛ˚ = S. विलोडय(ति), caus. of rt. वि+लुड्], v.t.=biloṛnā, q.v. (and cf. viloḍan).

H ولوکنا विलोकना wiloknā [wilok˚ = S. विलोकय(ति), caus. of वि+लोक्], v.t.=biloknā, q.v.

H ولولانا walwalānā [walwala, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.) + nā = Prk. अणअं = S. अनीयं], v.n. To howl; wail, lament;--to low or bubble (as a camel, esp. when in rut), &c. (i.q. balbalānā, q.v.).

H ولوونا विलोवना wilownā, v.t.=wiloṛnā, or biloṛnā, q.v.

H ولہنا वलहना walahnā, s.m. & v.n. A dialec. form of ulahnā, q.v.

H وناشنا विनाशना wināśnā [wināś˚ = S. विनाशय (ति), caus. of rt. वि+नश्], v.t. To destroy, ruin, spoil, &c. (i.q. bināsnā, q.v.).

H ونسنا विनसना winasnā, v.n.=binasnā, q.v.

H ونشانا विनशाना winaśānā or winśānā (caus. of winaśnā = binasnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to deteriorate, &c.; to destroy, ruin, spoil.

H ونشنا विनशना winaśnā, v.n.=binasnā, q.v.

H وواهنا विवाहना wiwāhnā [wiwāh˚ = Prk. विवाह(इ), or विवाहे(इ)=S. विवाहय(ति), caus. of rt. विवह्], v.t. To marry, wed (i.q. byāhnā, q.v.).

H ووڙهنا वोढ़ना woṛhnā, v.t. A dialec. form of oṛhnā, q.v.

H وهانا विहाना wihānā v.t.=bihānā, q.v.

H وهرنا विहरना wiharnā [Prk. विहरणअं; S. विहरणीयं, rt. विहृ], v.n. To enjoy pleasure; to rejoice;--v.t. To take pleasure in, to enjoy;--to rejoice, delight.

H وهسنا विहसना wihasnā [wihas˚ = S. विहस(ति), rt. वि+हस्], v.n. To laugh gently, to smile, to laugh.

H وياپنا व्यापना vyāpnā [vyāp˚ = S. व्याप्नो(ति), rt. वि+ आप्; or व्यापय(ति), caus. of rt. व्याप्], v.t. & int.=byāpnā, q.v.

H وياونا व्यावना wyāwnā, v.t. & n. corr. of vyāpnā, q.v.

H وياهنا व्याहना vyāhnā, v.t.=byāhnā, q.v.

H ويدهنا वेधना wedhnā [wedh˚ = S. विध्य(ति), rt. व्यध्], v.t. To prick, puncture; to pierce, &c. (i.q. bedhnā, q.v.).

H ويرنا वैरना wairnā [wair˚ prob.=S. व्यर्दय(ति), caus. of rt. वि+अर्द], v.t. (dialec.) To pour gradually from the hand or a vessel (rice, &c. into boiling water, grist into a mill, grain into a pan, or seed into the ground, &c.); to sow by drill;--to grind;--s.m. The vessel from which the grist is poured gradually into the mill the hopper;--a drill.

H وينچنا वैंचना waiṅćnā [waiṅć˚ = S. व्यञ्च(ति), rt. वि+अञ्च्], v.t. To separate; to tear off, to flay, skin.

H وينچهنا वैंछना waiṅćhnā [waiṅć˚ = S. व्यञ्च(ति), rt. वि+अञ्च्], v.t. To separate; to tear off, to flay, skin.

urdU verbs (nUn) / उर्दू अफ़्`आल (न)

This is a list of non-compound hindUstAnI verbs that have the nUn (ن) of the fArsI alphabet as the first letter. See my earlier post "A Deluge of Verbs ...?" for a background. This list was generated by mining the online version of Platts' Dictionary, and is a verbatim copy of the entries therein. This list may not be exhaustive & complete.

165 non-compound verbs starting with the nUn are listed below.

H ناپنا नापना nāpnā [nāpnā, prob. corr. of māpnā, q.v.; or nāp˚ = Prk. नप्प(इ)=S. ज्ञाप्य(ते), pass. of caus. of rt. ज्ञा], v.t. To measure; to weigh;--nāp-denā, or nāp-lenā, v.t. intens. of and=nāpnā:--rasta nāpnā, 'To measure the road'; to wander idly about, to saunter;--to pay a short (or a doctor's) visit.

H ناتهنا नाथना nāthnā [fr. nāth, q.v.; or nāth˚ = S. नस्तित], v.t. To bore the nose (of a bullock) and put a string in it (to guide him by);--to bring under subjection or control.

H ناٿنا नाटना nāṭnā, v.n.=naṭnā, q.v.

H ناچنا नाचना nāćnā [nāć˚ = Prk. नच्च(इ)=S. नृत्य (ति), rt. नृत्], v.n. To dance; to caper, or frisk about.

H نادنا नादना nādnā, v.t.=nādhnā, nāṅdnā, or nāṅdhnā, qq.v.

H نادهنا नाधना nādhnā [nādh˚ = S. नद्ध, p.p.p. of rt. नह्], v.t. To yoke;--to begin, to enter upon (also nāṅdhnā; nāṅdnā).

H ناسنا नासना nāsnā [nās˚ = Prk. नस्स(इ)=S. नश्य (ति), rt. नश्], v.n. To be lost, to disappear, vanish; to be destroyed; to perish; to wane;--to escape, flee, run away.

H ناسنا नासना nāsnā [nās˚ = Prk. नास(इ) or नासे(इ)=S. नाशय(ति), caus. of rt. नश्], v.t. To cause to disappear; to cause to perish; to destroy, ruin, efface, exterminate;--to lose.

H نامنا नामना nāmnā (fr. nām), v.t. To name, to mention; to praise, eulogize.

H نانا नाना nānā [nā˚ = nāw˚ = nawāw˚ = Prk. नवाव(इ), or नवावे(इ)=S. नमय(ति), caus. of rt. नम्], v.t. To bend; to bow (the head, &c.); to double, to fold;--to pour (in or out).

H نانچنا नांचना nāṅćnā, v.n. i.q. nāć, and nāćnā, qq.v.

H ناندنا नांदना nāṅdnā [Prk. नंदणअं; S. नन्दनीयं, rt. नन्द्], v.n. (dialec.) To continue happily or comfortably (with, or at, or in); to stay long and well; to become happily settled or domesticated (with, or at); to pass life, to live, dwell, reside, abide;--to go happily through to the end.

H ناندنا नांदना nāṅdnā (i.q. nādnā, or nādhnā, q.v.), v.t. To begin.

H ناندهنا नांधना nāṅdhnā (i.q. nādnā, or nādhnā, q.v.), v.t. To begin.

H نانگهنا नांघना nāṅghnā [nāṅgh˚ = lāṅgh˚ = Prk. लंघ(इ)=S. लङ्घ(ति), rt. लङ्घ], v.t. To jump, or leap, over or across; to step across, to cross; to pass over or beyond, to pass, transgress, infringe.

H ناونا नावना nāwnā, v.t.=nānā, or nawānā, qq.v.

H نبارنا निबारना nibārnā, v.t.=نوارنا niwārnā, q.v.

H نباڙنا निबाड़ना nibāṛnā [nibāṛ˚ = Prk. निव्वाड(इ) or निव्वाडे(इ)=S. निर्वाटय(ति), caus. of rt. निर् + वट्], v.t. To separate, divide; to adjust, settle, decide; to accomplish, perform, manage, fulfil, carry through, keep (an engagement, &c.); to end; to spend, to consume.

H نباهنا निबाहना nibāhnā [nibāh˚ = Prk. निव्वाह इ) or निव्वाहे(इ)=S. निर्वाहय(ति), caus. of rt. निर् +वह्], v.t. To carry on or through, to conduct, manage, &c. (see nibāh, and nibāh karnā);--to take care of, to protect, guard; to support, maintain;--v. int. To keep faith (with); to deal (with), to act or behave (towards);--to afford;--to wear, last, endure.

H نبٿانا निबटाना nibṭānā (i.q. nipṭānā, q.v.), v.t. To settle, adjust, decide, &c. (see nipṭānā):--nibṭā-denā, v.t. intens. of and=nibṭānā.

H نبٿنا निबटना nibaṭnā, v.n. = nipaṭnā, and nibaṛnā, qq.v.

H نبڙنا निबड़ना nibaṛnā [nibaṛ˚ = Prk. निव्वड(इ) or निव्वडे(इ); S. निर्वटय(ति), rt. निर् + वट्;--or nibaṛnā = nibaṭnā = nipaṭnā, q.v.], v.n. To be separated, or divided; to be settled, be adjusted, be decided; to be accomplished; to be completed, or finished; to be ended, be spent, be consumed:--nibaṛ-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=nibaṛnā.

H نبکنا निबुकना nibuknā [nibuk˚ = S. निर्मुक्त, p.p.p. of निर्+मुच्], v.t. (dialec.) To loosen, to set free, liberate; to separate; to sunder, disjoin (syn. ćhuṛānā);--v.n. To come out (of); to be loosed, or set free (from), to escape, &c. (i.q. nikalnā).

H نبنا निबना nibnā, v.n. (colloq.)=nibhnā, q.v.

H نبهانا निभाना nibhānā, v.t.=نباهنا nibāhnā, q.v.

H نبہنا निबहना nibahnā, v.n.=nibhnā, q.v.

H نبهنا निभना nibhnā (fr. the trans. nibāhnā, q.v.), v.n. To be accomplished, or performed, or effected; to succeed;--to serve, do, pass; to live, subsist, eke out a livelihood; to last, continue, endure.

H نبيڙنا निबेड़ना nibeṛnā, (rustic) नबेड़ना nabeṛnā [nibeṛ˚ = Prk. निव्वंड(इ)=S. निर्वण्ड(ते), rt. निर्+ वण्ड्; cf. nibāṛnā, of which nibeṛnā is another form], v.t. To separate, divide; to accomplish; to settle, adjust, decide; to complete, finish, terminate, put an end to; to spend, consume:--apnī nibeṛnā, To mind one's own business.

H نپاتنا निपातना nipātnā [nipāt˚ = S. निपातय(ति), caus. or rt. नि+पत्], v.t. To throw or cast down; to fell, to knock down, beat down; to overthrow, kill, destroy.

H نپاٿنا निपाटना nipāṭnā, v.t. (rustic or dialec.)=nipṭānā, q.v.

H نپٿانا निपटाना nipṭānā [caus. of nipaṭnā;--nipṭā˚ = niptāw = Prk. निप्पट्टआवे(इ) = S. निष्पत्(ति)+ आपय (caus. aug.)], v.t. To complete, finish, conclude, terminate, end; to decide, settle, adjust, compose.

H نپٿنا निपटना nipaṭnā [nipaṭ˚ = Prk. निप्पट्ट(इ), or निप्पट्टे(इ), fr. S. निष्पत्ति, rt. निस्+पद्], v.n. To be completed, or finished; to be concluded, or terminated; to terminate, to end; to be accomplished; to be settled, or adjusted, or decided;--to be spent, or consumed, or exhausted;--to be clear, or rid (of, -se), to have done (with).

H نپنا नपना napnā (fr. the trans. nāpnā, q.v.), v.n. To be measured; to be surveyed;--(colloq.) to measure oneself (with, or against), to have a quarrel, or a tussle (with, e.g. āj un-se ḵẖūb napī):--nap-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=napnā.

H نپوڙنا निपोड़ना nipoṛnā, v.t. To show (the teeth); to grin; to snarl; to grind or gnash (the teeth).

H نتارنا नितारना nitārnā, v.t. (dialec.) = نتهارنا nithārnā, q.v.

H نتهارنا निथारना nithārnā [nithār˚ = Prk. नित्थाल(इ), or नित्थाले(इ)=S. निस्थलय(ति), caus. of नि+स्थल्; or=S. निस्तारय(ति), caus. of rt. निस्+तॄ], v.t. To make clear or clean, to purify (water, or other liquid, by letting the feculent matter subside and pouring off the clear water, &c.); to pour off; to draw off (an infusion, &c.).

H نتهرنا निथरना nitharnā (fr. the trans. nithārnā, q.v.), v.n. To be made clear or clean, to be purified (water or other liquid, by letting the feculent matter subside, and pouring off the clear liquid).

H نتهنا नथना nathnā (fr. the trans. nāthnā, q.v.), v.n. To have the nose bored, and a string passed through it (a bullock).

H نٿنا नटना naṭnā [naṭ˚ = nāṭ˚ = S. नास्ति 'it is not'+nā = anā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v. int. To say 'no' (with respect to, -se), to deny, disallow, disclaim, disown; to decline, refuse.

H نٿنا नटना naṭnā [naṭ˚ = Prk. नट्ट(इ) or नट्टे(इ)=S. नर्तय(ति), fr. नर्त], v.n. To dance;--to strut, or mince;--to act or perform; to assume a dramatic dress or character.

H نٿيرنا नटेरना naṭernā [naṭer˚, prob.=S. नष्ट+कार], v.t. To turn up (the eyes), to close (the eyes, in death).

H نجهانا निझाना nijhānā [nijhā˚ = Prk. निज्झाअ(इ), or णिज्झा(इ)=S. निध्याय(ति), rt. नि+ध्यै], v.t. To see, perceive, observe, behold, look at attentively; to spy out; to pry into.

H نجهوٿنا निझोटना nijhoṭnā [nijhoṭ˚ = Prk. णिज्झोड(इ)], v.t. To twitch, &c. (i.q. jhaṭaknā, and khasoṭnā, qq.v.

H نچانا नचाना naćānā [caus. of nāćnā, q.v.;--naćā˚ =naćāw˚ = Prk. नञ्चावे(इ)=S. नृत्य+caus. aug. आपय(ति)], v.t. To cause to dance to make (one) dance, to set a-dancing; to spin (a top, &c.):--naćā-mārnā, v.t. To lead (one) a pretty dance; to tease, worry, harass (here naćā is the past conj. part. of naćānā).

H نچرنا निचरना nićarnā, v.n. (dialec.)=nićaṛnā, q.v.

H نچڙانا निचड़ाना nićaṛānā, or निचु़ड़ाना nićuṛāna, v.t.=nićuṛwānā, q.v.

H نچڙنا निचड़ना nićaṛnā, or निचुड़ना nićuṛnā [nićaṛ˚ = Prk. णिञ्चल(इ)=S. निश्चर(ति), rt. निस्+चर्], v.n. To flow out gently, to trickle, ooze, drop, distil;--to be squeezed or pressed; to be wrung (see nićoṛnā).

H نچڙوانا निचड़वाना nićaṛwānā, or निचुड़वाना nićuṛwānā (doub. caus. of nićaṛnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to flow, or trickle, &c.;--to have or get (water, &c.) wrung out, or strained, &c.;--to cause to wring, or press, or strain, &c.

H نچنا नचना naćnā, v.n.=nāćnā, q.v.

H نچنا नुचना nućnā (fr. the trans. noćnā, q.v.), v.n. To be scratched, or clawed, or pinched; to be plucked or pulled;--v.t.=noćnā, q.v.

H نچوانا नचवाना naćwānā (doub. caus. of nāćnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to be danced;--also=naćānā, q.v.

H نچوانا नुचवाना nućwānā (doub. caus. of noćnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to be scratched, or pinched, &c.;--to cause to scratch, or pinch, &c.

H نچورنا निचोरना nićornā, v.t. (dialec.)=nićoṛnā, q.v.

H نچوڙانا निचोड़ाना nićoṛānā, v.t. prop. نچڙانا nićuṛānā = نچڙوانا nićaṛwānā, q.v.

H نچوڙنا निचोड़ना nićoṛnā [caus. of nićuṛnā, a dialec. form of nićaṛnā;--nićoṛ˚ = nićāṛ˚ = Prk. निच्चाले(इ)=S. निश्चारय(ति), caus. of rt. निस्+चर्], v.t. 'To cause to issue or come forth'; to press or squeeze, to wring; to press out, to express; to strain; to wring out, to extort, exact;--to milk:--nićoṛ-lenā, v.t. intens. of and=nićoṛnā.

H نچوڙوانا निचोड़वाना nićoṛwānā, v.t. prop. نچڙوانا nićurwānā, q.v.

H ندانا निदाना nidānā [nidā˚ = Prk. निद्दा(इ)=S. निर्दा(ति), rt. निस्+दा or दो], v.t. To weed, to clear;--to cut, reap.

H ندرنا निदरना nidarnā, v.t. (dialec.) To treat with disrespect, or contempt, &c. (i.q. nirādar karnā, q.v.).

H نرانا निराना nirānā, or नराना narānā (cf. nidānā, of which it is prob. another form), v.t. To clear, to w eed (a garden, &c.); to reap (a harvest).

H نرباهنا निरबाहना nir-bāhna, v.t. (dialec.)=nibāhnā, q.v.

H نرتنا निर्तना nirtnā, or निरतना niratnā [nirt˚ = S. नृत्य(ति), rt. नृत्], v.n. (dialec.) To dance; to caper skip, jump about playfully; to gesticulate, to play (i.q. nirt karnā;--syn. nāćnā).

H نرکهنا निरखना nirakhnā [nirakh˚ = Prk. निरिक्ख(इ), or निरक्ख(इ)(?); S. निरीक्ष(ते), rt. निस्+ईक्ष्], v.t. To look at, see, regard, observe, view; to inspect, scan, examine closely.

H نرمانا नरमाना narmānā [narm, q.v. + ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment) + nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To soften; to mollify, soothe, appease, pacify, mitigate, assuage; to subdue;--to moderate, reduce, lower, abate, lessen (as a price, &c.):--nar-mānā, or narmā-janā, v.n. To become soft, to soften;--to become gentle, or mild; to be subdued;--to relax, abate, lower, lessen.

H نرمانا निर्माना or निरमाना nirmānā [nirmā˚ = S. निर्मा(ति), rt. मा with निस्], v.t. To make, form, fashion, fabricate; to produce, create; to build, construct; to compose.

H نروارنا निरुआरना niruʼārnā [niruʼār˚ = Prk. निरुवार(इ), fr. S. व्याकृ with निस्], v.t. (dialec.) To undo, unravel, disentangle, &c. (syn. kholnā; suljhānā).

H نروانا निरुवाना niruwānā, v.t. (dialec.) = نروارنا niruʼārnā, q.v.

H نريکهنا निरीखना nirīkhnā, or निरेखना nirekhnā [nirīkh˚ or nirekh˚ = Prk. निरिक्ख(इ)=S. निरीक्ष(ते), rt. ईक्ष् with निस्], v.t. & n. To look at or towards, to behold, gaze at, regard, observe, view;--to look out, to spy;--to consider, inspect;--to expect, hope for (i.q. nirakhnā, q.v.).

H نسارنا निसारना nisārnā [caus. of nisarnā;--nisār˚ = Prk. निस्सारे(इ) or निस्सार(इ)=S. निःसारयति), caus. of rt. निस्+सृ], v.t. To cause to go out or away, to turn out, eject, expel; to cause to issue or come forth.

H نسانا नसाना nasānā, (corr.) निसाना nisānā [nasā˚ = Prk. नस्सावे(इ) or नस्साव(इ)=S. नश्य(ति)+caus. aug. आपय], v.t. 'To cause to be lost or to perish'; to destroy, efface, annihilate; to spoil; to squander;--v.n. To be lost; to be destroyed, be annihilated; to perish, to come to nought.

H نساونا नसावना nasāwnā, or nasāʼonā, v.t. & n.=nasānā, q.v.

H نستارنا निस्तारना nistārnā [nistār˚ = S. निस्तारय(ति), caus. of rt. निस्+तॄ], v.t. To liberate, release, acquit; to rescue, save, deliver;--to exempt (the soul) from further transmigration, to beatify;--to discharge, pay off (a debt, &c.), to requite.

H نسرنا निसरना nisarnā (nisar˚ = Prk. निस्सर(इ) or नीसर(इ)=S. निःसर(ति), rt. निस् + सृ], v.n. To come out or forth, to issue; to go out or forth; to depart.

H نسنا नसना nasnā [nas˚ = Prk. नस्स(इ)=S. नश्य(ति), rt. नश्], v.n. (dialec.) To disappear, vanish, make off, escape, run away, flee.

H نشانا नशाना naśānā, v.t. & n., corr. or dialec. form of nasānā, q.v.

H نکارنا नकारना nakārnā [न 'no' + kār˚ = Prk. कारे(इ)=S. कारय(ति), caus. of rt. कृ], v.t. To deny; to refuse, to reject.

H نکارنا निकारना nikārnā, v.t. (dialec. or rustic)=nikālnā, q.v.

H نکاسنا निकासना nikāsnā [nikās˚ = Prk. निक्कासे(इ), or निक्कास(इ); S.निष्कासय(ति), caus. of rt. निस्+ कस्, prob. a Prk. form fr. कृष्], v.t. To turn out, drive out, to expel;--to take ont, to extract, &c.; to wrest, &c. (i.q. nikālnā, q.v.):--nikās-lenā, v.t. intens. of and=nikāsnā.

H نکالنا निकालना nikālnā [nikāl˚ = Prk. निक्काले(इ), or निक्काल(इ), fr. निक्काल=निक्कल्ह=निक्कड्ढ=S. निष्कृष्ट, p.p.p. of rt. निस्+कृष्;--or Prk. निक्काले(इ) = S. निष्कालय(ति), rt. निस्+कल्], v.t To pull or draw out; to take out (of, -se); to extract; to express; to distil;--to extricate;--to pick out, select;--to unpick, undo;--to strike out, to remove (from, -se), to take off; to deduct; to exclude, except (more com. nikāl denā or ḍālnā);--to drive out, turn out, eject, expel; to cashier; to put away, cast off, discard; (more com. nikāl denā); to dig out;--to beat out; to thresh (corn);--to bring out or forth, to produce;--to hatch;--to issue, publish;--to deduce;--to work out, solve (a problem, &c.); to accomplish, effect;--to find out, discover; to invent;--to put or bring forth; to give vent to;--to make manifest, to exhibit, display, show, to bring out (a procession);--to strike (a balance);--to break in, to train (a horse);--to let out, allow to escape, to utter, give utterance to:--nikāl-denā, v.t. (intens.) To drive out, eject, expel, &c.;--to take out; deduct; exclude, &c. (i.q. nikālnā):--nikāl-ḍālnā, v.t. (intens.) To take out, or away; to remove; to strike out, &c.:--nikāl-rakhnā, v.t. To lay or put by:--nikāl-lānā (-ko), To bring off, bring away; to abduct:--nikāl-lenā, v.t. intens. of and=nikālnā:--nikāl-le-jānā (-ko), To carry off; to steal; to make away with;--to abduct.

H نکانا निकाना nikānā (prob. another form of nikārnā or nikālnā), v.t. To weed;--to pick (with the nails).

H نکرنا निकरना nikarnā, v.n. (dialec.)=nikalnā, q.v.

H نکسنا निकसना nikasnā, (corr.) नकसना nakasnā [nikas˚ = Prk. निक्कस(इ)=S. निष्कस(ति), rt. निस् +कस्; see the trans. nikāsnā], v.n. To go out; to come out, to issue, &c. (i.q. nikalnā, q.v.).

H نکشنا नकशना nakaśnā, v.n. A dialec. or a corr. form of nikasnā, q.v.

H نکلانا निकलाना niklānā, v.t.=nikālnā, and nikalwānā, qq.v.

H نکلنا निकलना nikalnā (fr. the trans. nikālnā, q.v.), v.n. To be pulled or drawn out, to be taken out; to be expressed; to be extracted; to be extricated (from, -se);--to be deduced;--to be produced; to be invented;--to be hatched (eggs);--to be performed, or accomplished, or effected;--to be worked out, be solved;--to come out or forth, to issue, to emerge; to appear; to rise (as the sun); to germinate, to shoot;--to begin;--to come out or appear as a balance (to the credit of, -ke taʼīṅ, or against, -par, or -ke nām);--to result, prove, turn out;--to sally forth;--to find vent; to find utterance, to be uttered;--to go away, to depart, to proceed; to pass away (as life, or time); to secede;--to get out, to escape; to slink away, to give (one) the slip; to break loose (from, -se);--to go back (from a promise), to get out (of an engagement); to slip, to start (from its place); to spring (in these last senses, beginning with 'to go away,' the more com. form is nikal-jānā):--nikal-ānā, v.n. To come out, or forth; to appear; to rise (the sun, &c.):--nikal-bhāgnā, v.n. To run off or away, make off; to break (from); to get away, to escape:--nikal-paṛnā, v.n. To come out or forth (from, -se); to be drawn out or forth;--to drop out, fall out:--nikal-jānā, v.n. To go forth or away; to get away, to escape, &c. (i.q. nikalnā, q.v.); to disappear;--to wear out;--to advance, go on; to pass or get (beyond, -se), to outstrip, surpass; to exceed:--nikal-ćalnā, v.n. To go out or forth; to make off, to escape;--to be advanced, be promoted;--to pass or get (beyond), to surpass; to outstrip;--to break forth, to begin (speech, &c.); to speak much, or to display (one's) talent (said of one who before, owing to the presence of a stranger, or to some other restraining cause, had been silent).

H نکلوانا निकलवाना nikalwānā (caus. of nikālnā), v.t. To cause to go or come out; to cause to issue; to turn out, dismiss, eject, expel:--nikalwā-denā, v.t. To turn out (from, -se); to dismiss (from office); to eject, expel, banish.

H نکوسنا निकोसना nikosnā [nikos˚ = निक्कोस्से(इ) or निक्कोस्स(इ)=S. निकुस्मय(ते), fr. the nom. निकुस्मय, rt. नि+कु+स्मि], v.t. & intr. To show (the teeth, as an animal);--to grin.

H نکهارنا निखारना nikhārnā [caus. of nikharnā;--nikhār˚ = Prk. निक्खारे(इ) or निक्खार(इ)=S. निक्षारय (ति), caus. of rt. नि+क्षर्], v.t. To clean, to clear; to clarify;--to strain;--to bleach;--to peel, to skin;--to settle.

H نکهرانا निखराना nikharānā, or nikhrānā (caus. of nikhārnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to clean, &c.;--also=nikharwānā, q.v.;--(caus. of nikharnā), v.t.=nikhārnā, q.v.

H نکهرنا निखरना nikharnā [nikhar˚ = Prk. निक्खर(इ)=S. निक्षर(ति), rt. नि+क्षर], v.n. To be cleaned, be cleared; to be settled; to be clarified; to be strained;--to be peeled; to be skinned;--to settle; to become clear, to clear (as the complexion, or the sky, &c.);--to become composed, or serene;--to look angrily (at, -par).

H نکهروانا निखरवाना nikharwānā (doub. caus. of nikharnā), v.t. To cause to be cleaned, &c.; to have (or get) cleaned, or cleared, &c.

H نکهورنا निखोरना nikhornā, v.t. (dialec.) = nikhoṛnā, q.v.

H نکهوڙنا निखोड़ना nikhoṛnā [nikhoṛ˚ = Prk. निक्खोड (इ), for निक्कोड्ढ(इ), from निक्कोड्ढ=S. निष्कुष्ट, p.p.p. of निस्+कुष्], v.t. To pull or tear off or out; to strip off; to extract; to peel; to decorticate; to skin, flay; to excoriate; to husk, shell; to clean.

H نکهوسنا निखोसना nikhosnā, v. int.=nikosnā, q.v.

H نکهيانا नखियाना nakhiyānā, or निखयाना nikhyānā [nakhiyā˚ = nakhī (=S. nakha+ikā)+ā = āw = Prk. आवे or आव=S. आपि (caus. aug.)], v.t. To scratch, to claw.

H نکيانا नकियाना nakiyānā, v.t. corr. of nakhiyānā, q.v.

H نگچانا नगचाना nagćānā [nagćā˚ = nagić = nagīć, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आवे or आव=S. आपि (caus. aug.) + nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To draw near, to approach.

H نگلنا निगलना nigalnā [nigal˚ = Prk. निगले(इ), or निगल(इ), fr. S. noun निगल;--or fr. S. निगिल(ति), rt. नि+गॄ, by change of i to a], v.t. To swallow, swallow up; to gulp down; to devour;--(met.) to embezzle:--nigal-jānā (-ko), intens. of and=nigalnā.

H نگندنا निगन्दना nigandnā [nigand˚, perhaps=S. निग्रन्थ(ति), but most prob. fr. the P. nigandan = nikandan, rt. Zend kan with ni; S. निखन्], v.t. To quilt;--to sew with long stitches.

H نگهٿنا निघटना nighaṭnā (pref. ni+ghaṭnā, q.v.), v.n. (dialec.) To be greatly diminished, to be much less, &c.

H نلانا नलाना nalānā, v.t. (dialec.) = narānā, or nirānā, q.v.

H نمٿنا निमटना nimaṭnā, v.n.=nibaṭnā, q.v.

H نمنا नमना namnā [S. नमनीयं, rt. नम्], v.n. To bow down; to make obeisance (to).

H نمنانا निमनाना nimnānā [nimnā˚ = niman, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आवे or आव=S. आपि (caus. aug.) + nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To render strong, or tight, or good; to strengthen;--to ameliorate.

H نندانا नंदाना naṅdānā (caus. of nāṅdnā, q.v.), v.t. (dialec.) To cause to pass life happily, &c.

H نندرنا निंदरना niṅdarnā, v.t. (dialec.)=nidarnā, q.v.

H نندنا निन्दना nindnā [Prk. निंदणअं; S. निन्दनीयं, rt. निन्द्], v.t. To blame, &c. (i.q. ninda karna, q.v.).

H نندهنا नंधना naṅdhnā, v.t.=nāṅdhnā, q.v.

H ننگلانا निंगलाना niṅglānā (caus. of next, q.v.), v.t. To cause to swallow, &c.

H ننگلنا निंगलना niṅgalnā, v.t. To swallow, &c. (=nigalnā, q.v.).

H ننگهانا नंघाना naṅghānā (for laṅghānā, caus. of laṅghnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to leap over, &c.

H ننگيانا नंगियाना naṅgiyānā [naṅgiyā˚ = naṅgī (fem. of naṅgā)+ā = āw = Prk. आवे or आव=S. आपि, caus. aug.], To render naked, or bare; to strip (i.q. naṅgā karnā):--naṅgiyā-lenā, v.t. intens. of and=naṅgiyānā.

H نواجنا नवाजना nawājnā, or निवाजना niwājnā (corr. of nawāznā, q.v.), v.t. (dialec.) To caress, to coax; to wheedle, entice, decoy;--to have mercy on.

H نوارنا निवारना niwārnā, or नवारना nawārnā [niwār˚ = Prk. निवारे(इ) or निवार(इ)=S. निवारय(ति), caus. of rt. नि+वृ], v.t. To surround; to keep off, ward off; to exclude, to shut out; to protect, defend;--to prohibit, forbid, interdict;--to prevent, hinder, impede, obstruct, interrupt; to check, restrain; to oppose.

H نوارنا नवारना nawārnā [nawār˚, prob. = Prk. निवट्ट(इ)=S. निवर्त(ते), rt. नि+वृत्], v.n. To walk out or forth, to roam, stroll; to travel; to wander, stray.

H نوازنا nawāznā [nawāz, q.v. + ना = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To caress, soothe, comfort; to cherish; to favour, patronize;--to pardon.

H نواسنا निवासना niwāsnā (fr. nivās), v.n.=nivās karnā, q.v.

H نوانا नवाना nawānā, or निवाना niwānā [nawā˚ = nawāw˚ = Prk. नवावे(इ) or नवाव(इ)=S. नम + आपय(ति), rt. नम् with caus. aug. āpaya], v.t. To bend, to bow;--to cause to stoop;--to cause to submit to;--to double, to fold.

H نواونا नवावना nawāwnā, or nawāʼonā, or निवावना niwāwnā, or niwāʼonā, v.t.=nawānā, or niwānā, q.v.

H نواهنا निवाहना niwāhnā, v.t.=nibāhnā, q.v.

H نوتنا नौतना nautnā, or नोतना notnā [neʼotnā;--neʼot˚ = Prk. निमत्ते(इ) or निवत्ते(इ)=S. निमन्त्रय(ते), rt. मन्त्र् with नि], v.t. To invite (to a feast or entertainment);--to promise a gift to.

H نوٿانا निवटाना niwṭānā, v.t.=nibṭānā, q.v.

H نوچنا नोचना noćnā, (dialec.) नौचना naućnā [noć˚ = Prk. निउंच(इ)=S. निकुञ्च(ति), rt. नि+कुञ्च्], v.t. To pinch, to grip; to scratch, claw;--to pull out, pluck out (these meanings point to the S. lunć as their source);--to fleece (a person).

H نوڙيا निवड़ाना niwaṛānā, niwṛānā (caus. of next), v.t. (dialec.)=nauṛhānā.

H نوڙنا निवड़ना niwaṛnā, v.n. (dialec.)=nauṛhnā, q.v.

H نوڙهانا नौढ़ाना nauṛhānā (caus. of next), v.t. To bow; to bend;--to cause to stoop;--to render submissive or obedient; to subdue.

H نوڙهنا नौढ़ना nauṛhnā (i.q. nihuṛnā, q.v.), v.n. To incline downwards; to bend; to stoop;--to condescend;--to be subdued; to submit, &c.

H نوسنا निवसना niwasnā, v.n.=niwāsnā, q.v.

H نونا नवना nawnā, or नौना naunā, (dialec.) निवना niwnā [naw˚ or nau˚ = Prk. नम(इ) or नव(इ)=S. नम(ति), rt. नम्], v.n. To bow, bend, bend down, incline downwards; to stoop;--to submit, to become obedient or tractable.

H نونا नौना naunā, or नोना nonā (i.q. nawnā), v.t. To tie the feet of a cow when milking;--s.m. The string with which a cow's legs are tied at the time of milking (syn. nawī; nainā).

H نونتنا नौंतना nauṅtnā, v.t.=notnā, q.v.

H نوهڙنا नौहड़ना nauhṛnā, v.n. (dialec.)=nauṛhnā, q.v.

H نوهنا निवहना niwahnā, v.n.=nibahnā = nibhnā, q.v.

H نهاٿنا न्हाटना nhāṭnā, or नहाटना nahāṭnā [nhāṭ˚ = Prk. एहट्ट(इ), fr. S. स्नुस्त, p.p.p. of rt. स्नुस्], v.n. (dialec.) To vanish, disappear, flee, run away; to abscond; to desert.

H نہارنا निहारना nihārnā [Ap. Prk. णिहाल(इ); Prk. निहाले(इ) or निहाल(इ)=S. निभालय(ति), rt. नि+भल्], v.t. To look at, to behold closely or attentively, to gaze at, to regard; to look after, to watch; to spy.

H نہانا नहाना nahānā, or न्हाना nhānā [nahā˚ = Prk. ण्हा(इ)=S. स्ना(ति), rt. स्ना], v.n. To bathe; to wash; to perform ablutions:--nahānā-dhonā, v.n. =nahānā.

H نهانٿنا न्हांटना nhāṅṭnā, v.n.=nhāṭnā, q.v.

H نہرانا निहुराना nihurānā (caus. of nihurnā), v.t. (dialec.)=nihuṛānā, q.v.

H نہرنا निहुरना nihurnā, v.n. (dialec.)=nihuṛnā, q.v.

H نہڙانا निहुड़ाना nihuṛānā (caus. of nihuṛnā, q.v.), v.t. To bend, to bow; to cause to crook; to cause to stoop;--to render submissive or obedient (i.q. nauṛhānā):--nihurā-lenā, v.t. intens. of and=nihuṛānā.

H نہڙنا निहुड़ना nihuṛnā [nihuṛ˚ = Ap. Prk. णिहुड(इ), for Prk. नवड(इ), fr. नव(इ)=S. नम(ति), with addition of dim. aff. ड (cf. dauṛnā); but said in H. C.'s Prk. Gr. iv. 22, to be a substitute for S. नि+पत्; cf. nihoṛnā, fr. Prk. णिहोड(इ)], v.n. To incline or bend down, ward, to bend, bow;--to decline;--to condescend;--to submit; to be subdued.

H نہلانا नहलाना nahlānā, निहलाना nihlānā, or न्हलाना nhalānā (caus. of nahānā), v.t. To cause to bathe; to bathe, to give (one) a bath:--nahlānā-dhulānā, v.t.=nahlānā.

H نہلوانا नहलवाना nahalwānā, or निहलवाना nihalwānā, or न्हलवाना nhalwānā (doub. caus. of nahānā), v.t. To cause to be bathed or washed, to have or get (one) bathed.

H نہنا नहना nahnā (fr. the trans. nahānā, q.v.), v.n. To flow; to stream.

H نہنا नहना nahnā [nah˚ = S. नह्य(ति), rt. नह्], v.t. (dialec.) To bind, tie, fasten, bind on, &c. (a word com. used in Bundelkhand).

H نہوانا नहवाना nahwānā (caus. of nahānā), v.t. (dialec.)=nahlānā, q.v.

H نہورنا निहूरना nihūrnā, or नहूरना nahūrnā, v.t. (dialec.)=nihūṛnā, q.v.

H نہوڙنا निहूड़ना nihūṛnā, or निहोड़ना nihoṛnā [caus. of nihuṛnā, and=Prk. निहोड(इ); see nihuṛnā], v.t. To cause to bend, or stoop, &c.; to bend; to render humble or submissive, &c. (i.q. nihurānā; nauṛhānā).

H نيجانا नैजाना nai-jānā, v.n. intens. form of nainā, q.v.

H نيدنا नीदना nīdnā, v.n. To sleep (i.q. nīṅdnā, q.v.).

H نيرانا नियराना niyarānā, or नेराना nerānā [niyar or ner, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आवे or आव=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. (dialec.) To draw nigh, to approach (syn. nagćānā).

H نيرنا नीरना nīrnā [fr. S. नीर 'water'], To water;--to provide with food.

H نيڙنا नेड़ना neṛnā (prob. fr. neṛ = ner or niyar, q.v.), v.t. To keep near (one), or under (one's) care, to care for, to look after.

H نيسرنا नीसरना nīsarnā, v.n.=nisarnā, q.v.

H نينا नैना nainā, v.n. A dialec. form of nauna or nawnā, 'to bend,' q.v.:--nai-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=nainā.

H نيندنا नींदना nīṅdnā [nīṅd˚ = Prk. निद्दा(इ)=S. निद्रा(ति), rt. निद्रा], v.n. To fall asleep; to sleep, to repose.

H نيندنا नींदना nīṅdnā [nīṅd˚, prob.=S. निन्हु(ते), rt. नि+न्हु], v.t. To disown, to deny.

H نيندنا नींदना nīṅdnā, v.t.=نندنا nindnā, 'to blame,' &c., q.v.

H نيوارنا नेवारना newārnā, v.t.=niwārnā, q.v.

H نيوانا नेवाना newānā, v.t.=niwānā, or nawānā, q.v.

H نيوتانا नेवताना newatānā, or न्योताना nyotānā v.t.=nautnā, q.v.

H نيوتنا नेवतना newatnā, or न्योतना nyotnā v.t.=nautnā, q.v.

H نيوڙانا न्योड़ाना nyoṛānā, v.t. (dialec.) = nauṛhānā, or nihuṛānā, qq.v.

H نيوڙنا न्योड़ना nyoṛnā v.n. (dialec.) = nauṛhnā, or nihuṛnā, qq.v.

H نيوڙهنا न्योढ़ना nyoṛhnā v.n. (dialec.) = nauṛhnā, or nihuṛnā, qq.v.

H نيونا नेवना newnā, or neʼonā, v.n. (dialec.) = niwnā = nawnā, q.v.