ऐ दर्या-ए क़ैद् दर् सीनः-ए मन् ... (اَے دَرْیَا ئ قَیدْ دَرْ سِینۂ مَنْ ۔۔۔)

Time Dilation Again - Much Ado about Nothing?

2010-11-05T13:58:00.016-05:00

Preliminaries

The Lorentz transforms in the Theory of Special Relativity (SR) between frames O and O' defined in the usual way are given by

t' = L (t - vx)
x' = L (x - vt)

where v is the relative velocity of the origin of O' with respect to the origin of O (along the x-direction), L = (1 - v^2)^(-1/2) > 1, and t is measured in terms of distance so that the velocity of light, c, becomes equal to 1.

Time Dilation

The usual treatment of Time Dilation is as follows. For a clock situated at the origin of O' we have x'=0, so that

x = vt

and

t' = L (1-v^2) t = t/L

Since L > 1, this means that the clock at the origin of O' runs slower by a factor of L compared to the clock in the frame of O which is coincident with it. This has been called Time Dilation. And the usual interpretation is that the clocks in the frame of O' actually tick slower than those in O. This is further taken to mean that O' physically ages slower than O.

What does the origin of O see?

Consider the perspective of the observer located at the origin of O. She sees clocks of O' going past her with speed v in the x-direction. At any given instant t, at the origin of O (i.e. x=0) we get,

t' = Lt

This means that the clocks of O' coincident with the origin of O run faster by exactly the same factor L. (Ultimately, this is to be expected due to the symmetry of the Lorentz transforms and the Principle of Relativity.)

Now, the observer located at the origin of O would conclude that the clocks of O' run faster than her clock. This is at variance with the observer located at x(=vt) in O who, as we have seen earlier, concludes that the clocks of O' run slower in comparison. In fact, different observers located at different points in the frame of O all come to different conclusions about the rate at which clocks in O' tick. Interestingly, there is a locus of events given by

x = t (L - 1) / (Lv)

where the clocks of O and O' agree. This locus lies between the world lines of O and O'.

Nowhere have I seen the argument that the observations of the observer at the origin of O should be used to conclude that the exact opposite of Time Dilation takes place!

What does all this really mean?

Ultimately, this boils down to the fact that frames O and O' don't agree on the assignment of space-time coordinates to space-time events. According to O, the clocks of O' are not synchronized correctly. And according to O', the clocks of O are not synchronized correctly. However, neither O nor O' can argue that the intrinsic rate at which their individual clocks tick vary merely due to the relative velocity between the two frames. This also follows from the Principle of Relativity because neither frame is privileged. In fact, time as a measurement of physical/dynamical/physiological duration has to tick at the same rate in both frames. This is because the Lorentz transforms are kinematical and do not include any dynamical effects that would affect the physiological rate of ageing. At best, the Lorentz transforms should be interpreted as scaling transforms that maintain covariance between two inertially moving frames (i.e. the speed of light, c, remains 1 in both frames).

Verbs in दीवान्-ए ग़ालिब्

2010-08-24T15:37:00.019-05:00

This post is a follow-up on "A Deluge of Verbs ...?" which reiterated the opinion that (non-compound) verbs are falling out of use in literary उर्दू. To arrive at a metric of this phenomenon, one method is to enumerate the verbs found in the works of famous poets. Who better to start off with than ग़ालिब्!

The following verbs encountered in दीवान्-ए ग़ालिब् have been extracted by me manually. Those listed in parenthesis occur as verbal nouns; however, because of the rather interrupted nature of this project, I've not been consistent in terms of exactly when I noted something down as a verbal noun and when I didn't. Nevertheless, this list gives a fairly good idea of the verbs which were in vogue in literary उर्दू; and things haven't change significantly since then.

This is a Work-In-Progress, and this post will get updated as and when I get the chance to pump effort into it.

Notes
- कर्‌ना and होना are not noted, but देना and लेना are.
- Verbs that occur in a रदीफ़् are noted just once under the "Common:" label for that ग़ज़ल्.
- The ग़ज़ल्s and शॆऽर्s are listed in the order they appear in "A Desertful of Roses" by Frances W. Pritchett.

ग़ज़ल् १
१.२ पूछ्‌ना, लाना
१.३ चाह्‌ना
१.४ चाह्‌ना, बिछाना
Unique (4): पूछ्‌ना, लाना, चाह्‌ना, बिछाना

ग़ज़ल् २
२.१ आना
Unique (1): आना

ग़ज़ल् ३
३.१ आना
३.३ (खुल्) जाना
३.४ लेना, (जाना)
३.५ ढाँप्‌ना
३.६ (मर्) सक्‌ना
३.१२ रह्‌ना
३.१३ पूछ्‌ना
Unique (7): आना, जाना, लेना, ढाँप्‌ना, सक्‌ना, रह्‌ना, पूछ्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ४
Common: पाना
४.१ कह्‌ना, देना
४.३ देख्‌ना
४.५ लग्‌ना, खिल्‌ना, देख्‌ना
४.६ ढूँढ्‌ना
४.७ छिड़क्‌ना, पूछ्‌ना
४.१६ ढूँढ्‌ना
Unique(9): पाना, कह्‌ना, देना, देख्‌ना, लग्‌ना, खिल्‌ना, ढूँढ्‌ना, छिड़क्‌ना, पूछ्‌ना,

ग़ज़ल् ५
Common: (जल्) जाना
५.२ लग्‌ना
५.४ आना
५.५ दिखाना
५.६ (देख्‌ना)
५.७ जाना
Unique(4): जाना, लग्‌ना, आना, दिखाना

ग़ज़ल् ६
Common: निकल्‌ना
६.२ देना
६.६ उठाना
६.९ खटक्‌ना, कह्‌ना
६.११ देख्‌ना, छिप्‌ना
६.१३ देख्‌ना
६.१४ लेना
Unique(8): निकल्‌ना, देना, उठाना, खटक्‌ना, कह्‌ना, देख्‌ना, छिप्‌ना, लेना

ग़ज़ल् ७
७.१ (मर्) जाना
७.२ लग्‌ना, (उड़्‌ना)
७.३ रह्‌ना
७.५ जाना
७.५ सक्‌ना
Unique(4): जाना, लग्‌ना, रह्‌ना, सक्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ८
Common: आना
८.४ टपक्‌ना
८.५ डाल्‌ना
Unique(3): आना, टपक्‌ना, डाल्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ९
९.२ दब्‌ना
९.३ चाह्‌ना, छूट्‌ना
९.६ चाह्‌ना, (मर्) जाना
९.७ (मर्) जाना
९.९ देख्‌ना, (बख़्श्) जाना
Unique(5): दब्‌ना, चाह्‌ना, छूट्‌ना, जाना, देख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १०
१०.३ आना, लेना
१०.४ दिखाना, देना
१०.७ उग्‌ना
१०.१० सोना
Unique(6): आना, लेना, दिखाना, देना, उग्‌ना, सोना

ग़ज़ल् ११
११.२ आना
११.५ खाना

ग़ज़ल् १२
१२.४ लेना

ग़ज़ल् १३
१३.३ (देख्‌ना)
१३.५ उछल्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १४
Common: खुल्‌ना
१४.१ देख्‌ना
१४.३ खाना
१४.४ समझ्‌ना, पाना
१४.६ निकल्‌ना, देख्‌ना, (बढ़्‌ना)
१४.७ रह्‌ना, कह्‌ना, (फिर्‌ना), जाना, (लिपट्‌ना)
१४.८ रह्‌ना
१४.९ रह्‌ना, लाना
१४.१० रह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १५
१५.३ पिरोना
१५.८ टप्काना
१५.११ कह्‌ना
१५.१५ रोक्‌ना, देख्‌ना
१५.१६ देख्‌ते
१५.१७ कह्‌ना, पूछ्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १६
१६.१ देना
१६.२ तोड़्‌ना
१६.३ खेँच्‌ना, फिर्‌ना
१६.४ पूछ्‌ना
१६.५ जान्‌ना, देख्‌ना
१६.८ पूछ्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १७
१७.२ चाह्‌ना, टपक्‌ना
१७.३ जाना
१७.४ चाह्‌ना
१७.५ पूछ्‌ना
१७.६ लेना

ग़ज़ल् १८
१८.२ खुल्‌ना
१८.४ पूछ्‌ना
१८.५ देना

ग़ज़ल् १९
१९.१ फ़र्माना, भर्‌ना, (बढ़्‌ना), जाना
१९.२ गुजर्‌ना, कह्‌ना, फ़र्माना
१९.३ आना, सम्झाना
१९.४ बाँध्‌ना, लाना
१९.५ (छुट्‌ना), जाना
१९.६ भाग्‌ना, घब्राना
१९.७ मान्‌ना, रह्‌ना, खाना

ग़ज़ल् २०
२०.१ जाना, रह्‌ना
२०.२ जीना, जान्‌ना, मर्‌ना
२०.३ जान्‌ना, बँध्‌ना, (तोड़्‌ना), सक्‌ना
२०.४ पूछ्‌ना
२०.५ बन्‌ना
२०.६ टपक्‌ना, थम्‌ना, समझ्‌ना
२०.७ बच्‌ना
२०.८ कहूँ, मर्‌ना
२०.९ (मर्‌ना), उठ्‌ना
२०.१० देख्‌ना
२०.११ समझ्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २१
२१.१ मर्‌ना, जीना
२१.३ देख्‌ना
२१.४ चाह्‌ना, (आज़्माना)
२१.८ पूछ्‌ना
२१.९ देख्‌ना, (बहाना)
२१.१० सुन्‌ना
२१.१२ (आज़्माना)

ग़ज़ल् २२
२२.२ फिर्-आना
२२.५ जाना
२२.६ देख्‌ना, मिल्‌ना
२२.७ टपक्‌ना
२२.८ दिख्‌ना, देना
२२.९ उड़्‌ना, देख्‌ना, जाना

ग़ज़ल् २३

ग़ज़ल् २४
२४.3 देना
२४.४ मार्‌ना, जान्‌ना
२४.८ देना, लिख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २५
Common: जाना
२५.३ लेना, सोना
२५.६ फ़र्माना, रह्‌ना
२५.७ लेना, जाना
२५.९ सोच्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २६
२६.३ आज़्माना, जाना
२६.४ खाना
२६.५ आना
२६.७ देना
२६.८ जाना, थम्‌ना
२६.९ लेना
२६.१० पढ़्‌ना, कह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २७
२७.२ जान्‌ना
२७.४ देना
२७.५ तरस्‌ना
२७.६ (देना), बैठ्‌ना
२७.८ देख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २८
२८.२ देख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २९
Common: बाँध्‌ना
२९.३ माँग्‌ना
२९.४ बँध्‌ना, खोल्‌ना
२९.५ पूछ्‌ना, खोल्‌ना
२९.६ चाह्‌ना, खोल्‌ना
२९.७ लाना

ग़ज़ल् ३०
३०.१ आना
३०.२ चढ़्‌ना, पड़्‌ना, जाना
३०.३ पड़्‌ना, जान्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ३१
३१.१ रोना
३१.३ देना

ग़ज़ल् ३२
३२.३ (मर्‌ना), जाना, आना, कह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ३३
३३.२ खेँच्‌ना
३३.३ कह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ३४
समझ्‌ना
३४.३ पूछ्‌ना
३४.४ चाह्‌ना
३४.८ देना, (जान्‌ना)

ग़ज़ल् ३५
Common: आना
३५.२ लेना
३५.५ जाना
३५.७ जाना
३५.८ देख्‌ना
३५.१० उठाना

ग़ज़ल् ३६
३६.३ बत्लाना, देना
३६.५ जाना
३६.६ कह्‌ना, (बिगड़्‌ना), बैठ्‌ना
३६.७ देख्‌ना
३६.८ रख्‌ना
३६.९ मर्‌ना
३६.१० पकड़्‌ना, जाना, लिख्‌ना
३६.११ कह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ३७

ग़ज़ल् ३८
३८.४ देख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ३९
३९.२ उग्‌ना
३९.३ देख्‌ना, खाना
३९.४ खाना

ग़ज़ल् ४०
४०.१ देख्‌ना, लेना, रह्‌ना, जाना, देना
४०.२ मार्‌ना
४०.६ जल्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ४१
Common: रह्‌ना
४१.२ जाना, लेना
४१.३ मर्‌ना
४१.५ देना
४१.७ जाना
४१.८ डर्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ४२
४२.१ कह्‌ना
४२.५ रह्‌ना, चाह्‌ना
४२.६ मार्‌ना
४२.७ रह्‌ना
४२.९ समझ्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ४३
४३.१ बन्‌ना, जाना
४३.२ पीना
४३.३ बनाना, सक्‌ना
४३.४ देना, टाल्‌ना, निकल्‌ना
४३.५ लिख्‌ना, जाना, दिख्लाना
४३.६ घिस्‌ना, (मिट्‌ना), जाना, बदल्‌ना
४३.७ लेना

ग़ज़ल् ४४
४४.१ रह्‌ना
४४.२ देना

ग़ज़ल् ४५
४५.२ रख्‌ना
४५.४ जाना

ग़ज़ल् ४६
४६.१ आना, कह्‌ना, दिख्लाना
४६.२ रह्‌ना, घब्राना
४६.३ समझ्‌ना, खाना
४६.४ लेना, पहुँचाना
४६.५ गुज़र्‌ना, उठ्‌ना, जाना
४६.६ देख्‌ना, मर्‌ना, जाना, दिख्लाना
४६.७ पूछ्‌ना, बत्लाना

ग़ज़ल् ४७
४७.१ सक्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ४८
Common: जाना
४८.१ गुज़र्‌ना
४८.२ लिख्‌ना, बन्‌ना
४८.३ जाना, घिस्‌ना
४८.५ आना
४८.६ मिट्‌ना
४८.७ बरस्‌ना, खिल्‌ना, रोना
४८.९ बख़्श्‌ना, चाह्‌ना
४८.१० खुल्‌ना, देख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ४९
४९.१ देना
४९.२ पुछ्‌ना
४९.३ रख्‌ना, गुज़र्‌ना
४९.५ उठ्‌ना
४९.६ देना
४९.७ दौड़्‌ना
४९.९ रख्‌ना
४९.१२ उड़्‌ना, देख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ५०
५०.२ देना, दिख्लाना
५०.३ लिख्‌ना, रख्‌ना, सक्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ५१
५१.१ रह्‌ना, मर्‌ना
५१.२ लिख्‌ना
५१.५ खेँच्‌ना
५१.७ सुन्‌ना, कह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ५२
५२.१ मुंद्‌ना, जाना, खोल्‌ना, लाना

ग़ज़ल् ५३
५३.२ सक्‌ना
५३.४ मार्‌ना
५३.७ जान्‌ना, देना
५३.९ रोना, देख्‌ना, पाना, हँस्‌ना
५३.११ आना

ग़ज़ल् ५४
५४.२ आना
५४.३ चल्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ५५

ग़ज़ल् ५६
Common: खेँच्‌ना
५६.२ पूछ्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ५७
५७.१ छुट्‌ना
५७.२ रह्‌ना
५७.३ बुझ्‌ना, उठ्‌ना
५७.८ मर्‌ना
५७.९ आना, जाना

ग़ज़ल् ५८
५८.२ जाना
५८.३ सुन्‌ना, जाना
५८.५ आना
५८.६ मर्‌ना
५८.७ आना, रह्‌ना
५८.८ खटक्‌ना, रोना, देख्‌ना
५८.९ पुछ्‌ना, नाच्‌ना, पड़्‌ना
५८.१० कह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ५९
Common: कह्‌ना
५९.१ बनाना, लेना, जान्‌ना
५९.२ कह्‌ना, रह्‌ना, जान्‌ना
५९.३ आना, पड़्‌ना, लेना
५९.४ जाना, रह्‌ना
५९.५ छोड़्‌ना, पूज्‌ना
५९.६ चल्‌ना
५९.७ बन्‌ना
५९.८ चाह्‌ना, सुन्‌ता

ग़ज़ल् ६०
Common: देख्‌ना
६०.१ जल्‌ना, जाना
६०.२ कह्‌ना
६०.३ रुक्‌ता
६०.४ आना, मर्‌ना
६०.५ लरज़्‌ना
६०.६ खेँच्‌ना
६०.७ बक्‌ना, जाना
६०.८ बाँध्‌ना, तोड़्‌ना, डाल्‌ना, चल्‌ना
६०.९ घब्राना, जाना
६०.१० समझ्‌ना
६०.११ गिर्‌ना, देना
६०.१२ फोड़्‌ना, आना, जाना

ग़ज़ल् ६१
६१.१ लरज़्‌‌ना
६१.२ छोड़्‌ना, फिर्‌ना
६१.३ लिख्‌ना
६१.४ रह्‌ना
६१.६ देख्‌ना, आना, बरस्‌ना
६१.७ रह्‌ना
६१.७ लड़्‌ना, चल्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ६२
६२.१ गुज़र्‌ना
६२.२ समझ्‌ना, देना
६२.४ उठ्‌ना, लेना, आना
६२.६ खोल्‌ना, रोना,
६२.७ मर्‌ना, उड़्‌ना, जाना, कह्‌ना
६२.८ दिखाना
६२.९ लेना, देना, मर्‌ना
६२.१० पाना, चढ़्‌ना, जाना, रुक्‌ना
६२.११ कह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ६३
६३.१ पाना

ग़ज़ल् ६४
६४.१ जाना
६४.२ बाँध्‌ना
६४.३ समझ्‌ना
६४.४ रख्‌ना
६४.५ सौँप्‌ना
६४.६ कह्‌ना
६४.८ बाँध्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ६५
६५.१ जाना

ग़ज़ल् ६६
६६.१ देख्‌ना, जाना, रह्‌ना
६६.२ जाना, घिस्‌ना
६६.३ आना, कह्‌ना, मान्‌ना
६६.४ जाना, कह्‌ना, मिल्‌ना
६६.५ रह्‌ना
६६.८ देख्‌ना
६६.९ गुज़र्‌ना
६६.१० कह्‌ना, जाना, मर्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ६७
६७.१ जान्‌ना
६७.३ खेँच्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ६८
६८.१ (क़ुबूल्‌ना)
६८.३ देना
६८.४ जाना
६८.५ पूछ्‌ना
६८.६ देख्‌ना
६८.७ उड़्‌ना
६८.९ खेँच्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ६९
६९.१ देख्‌ना, गुज़र्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ७०
७०.१ रख्‌ना
७०.२ निकल्‌ना
७०.३ लाना, बन्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ७१
७१.५ खेँच्‌ना
७१.९ पूछ्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ७२
७२.१ आना
७२.२ बहाना
७२.३ मुंद्‌ना, जाना, खोल्‌ना, आना (similar to ५२.१)
७२.४ रुक्‌ना, मर्‌ना
७२.५ बैठ्‌ना
७२.६ देख्‌ना, पहुँच्‌ना
७२.७ मर्‌ना, जाना, फोड़्‌ना, बैठ्‌ना, आना

ग़ज़ल् ७३
७३.१ लेना, लगाना
७३.२ निकल्‌ना, निकाल्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ७४

ग़ज़ल् ७५
७५.४ लरज़्‌‌ना
७५.६ पूछ्‌ना
७५.७ जल्‌ना, देख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ७६
७६.२ जल्‌ना, जाना

ग़ज़ल् ७७
७७.१ छिड़क्‌ना
७७.३ रह्‌ना
७७.५ देना, देख्‌ना
७७.६ छोड़्‌ना, जाना, माँग्‌ना
७७.७ खेँच्‌ना
७७.८ गिर्‌ना, चुन्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ७८
७८.१ चाह्‌ना, जीना
७८.२ देख्‌ना, गुज़र्‌ना
७८.४ मान्‌ना, जाना
७८.७ जल्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ७९
Common: माँग्‌ना
७९.२ आना
७९.५ समझ्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ८०
८०.२ टुट्‌ना, पड़्‌ना
८०.३ (मर्‌ना), जाना
८०.४ रख्‌ना
८०.६ रख्‌ना
८०.८ दौड़्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ८१
८१.५ जान्‌ना
८१.६ समझ्‌ना
८१.७ समझ्‌ना
८१.११ समझ्‌ना, चाह्‌ना
८१.१२ देना
८१.१३ पूछ्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ८२

ग़ज़ल् ८३
८३.१ मार्‌ना, देख्‌ना, लेना
८३.२ रख्‌ना, लेना

ग़ज़ल् ८४
८४.१ लेना
८४.५ आना

ग़ज़ल् ८५
८५.३ रह्‌ना
८५.५ रोना
८५.६ छूट्‌ना, जाना
८५.७ खपाना
८५.८ जाना

ग़ज़ल् ८६
Common: कह्‌ना
८६.१ आना
८६.२ जाना, देख्‌ना
८६.४ आना, जाना
८६.६ आना
८६.७ घब्राना
८६.८ देख्‌ना, लाना
८६.९ मर्‌ना, जाना

ग़ज़ल् ८७
८७.२ उड़्‌ना, जाना
८७.३ जाना
८७.४ कहूँ
८७.६ सिल्वाना, समझ्‌ना
८७.७ (मार्‌ना)
८७.9 लेना, जाना
८७.१० झुक्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ८८
Common: कह्‌ना
८८.१ आना, सक्‌ना
८८.४ चाह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ८९
Common: सक्‌ना
८९.१ बुलाना, लेना, चाह्‌ना, आना
८९.२ उठाना
८९.३ मिल्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ९०
९०.१ खुल्‌ना, जाना, छेड़्‌ना, रख्‌ना
९०.३ पीना, समझ्‌ना, लाना
९०.४ जान्‌ना, जाना
९०.५ बैठ्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ९१
९१.१ (छेड़्‌ना)
९१.२ कर्‌ना
९१.४ देना, रख्‌ना
९१.७ चीर्‌ना, चुभोना
९१.९ बदल्‌ना
९१.१० गिर्‌ना, लिख्‌ना
९१.११ पाना
९१.१२ कह्‌ना, जान्‌ना
९१.१४ कह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ९२
९२.२ दौड़ाना
९२.३ रह्‌ना, जाना
९२.४ रह्‌ना
९२.५ खुजाना, जाना
९२.६ देना

ग़ज़ल् ९३
९३.१ समझ्‌ना
९३.२ उतर्‌ना
९३.३ तराश्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ९४
९४.१ देख्‌ना, चाह्‌ना, खुल्‌ना, जाना

ग़ज़ल् ९५
९५.२ आना
९५.४ जाना, मर्‌ना
९५.६ कह्‌ना, जीना

ग़ज़ल् ९६
Common: देख्‌ना
९६.६ बनाना

ग़ज़ल् ९७
९७.१ मिल्‌ना
९७.२ बताना, रख्‌ना
९७.३ आना, जाना
९७.४ आना, लिख्‌ना, रख्‌ना, जान्‌ना
९७.५ आना, मिलाना
९७.६ चल्‌ना
९७.७ डाल्‌ना
९७.८ देना, भूल्‌ना, जाना
९७.९ चढ़्‌ना, पड़्‌ना
९७.१० चुराना, बिगड़्‌ना
९७.११ पाना, पड़्‌ना
९७.१२ आना
९७.१३ छुट्‌ना, पीना

ग़ज़ल् ९८
९८.३ निकल्‌ना, लगना
९८.४ देख्‌ना
९८.७ धर्‌ना
९८.१० समझ्‌ना, जाग्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ९९
९९.१ रोना, पीट्‌ना, रख्‌ना
९९.२ छोड़्‌ना, लेना, पूछ्‌ना, जाना
९९.३ जाना, जान्‌ना
९९.४ बाँध्‌ना, जान्‌ना
९९.५ लेना, कह्‌ना, जान्‌ना, लुटाना
९९.६ चल्‌ना, पॆह्चान्‌ना
९९.७ देना, पूज्‌ना
९९.८ भूल्‌ना, जाना
९९.९ रह्‌ना, समझ्‌ना
९९.१० देख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १००
१००.१ बिगड़्‌ना, जाना
१००.३ कह्‌ना
१००.५ रह्‌ना
१००.६ कह्‌ना, लेना
१००.७ आना

ग़ज़ल् १०१
१०१.५ जान्‌ना
१०१.७ बन्द्‌ना (?)
१०१.८ देना

ग़ज़ल् १०२
१०२.१ समझ्‌ना, रह्‌ना, आना, पड़्‌ना
१०२.२ (थक्‌ना), रह्‌ना, जाना, पाना

ग़ज़ल् १०३
१०३.१ जाना

ग़ज़ल् १०४
१०४.१ सुन्‌ना, आना, बोल्‌ना
१०४.२ आना, आज़्माना

ग़ज़ल् १०५
१०५.१ लगाना, जाना, बैठ्‌ना, पाना

ग़ज़ल् १०६
Common: देख्‌ना
१०६.२ आना
१०६.३ लग्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १०७
१०७.२ कह्‌ना
१०७.३ आना, जाना
१०७.४ आना, कह्‌ना
१०७.५ मिल्‌ना
१०७.६ देना
१०७.७ कह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १०८
Common: बाँध्‌ना
१०८.२ देख्‌ना
१०८.६ पूछ्‌ना
१०८.१२ जाना
१०८.१३ भाग्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १०९
Common: रख्‌ना
१०९.८ सौँप्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ११०
११०.१ पड़्‌ना
११०.२ घब्राना, जाना
११०.३ मिटाना
११०.४ चाह्‌ना
११०.५ जान्‌ना
११०.६ रख्‌ना
११०.८ देना, जाना, कह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १११
Common: जाना
१११.३ आना
१११.४ लेना
१११.६ बह्‌ना, समझ्‌ना
१११.७ लेना
१११.९ जाना, खुल्‌ना, (सुन्‌ना)
१११.१० जाना
१११.११ रोक्‌ना, उभर्‌ना
१११.१२ जाना
१११.१३ आना, जाना
१११.१४ मिट्‌ना, जाना
१११.१५ मिट्‌ना, जाना, पड़्‌ना
१११.१६ रोना, रह्‌ना, देख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ११२
११२.२ देख्‌ना
११२.३ मिल्‌ना
११२.४ (कट्‌ना), सक्‌ना
११२.७ डर्‌ना, मान्‌ना
११२.९ मर्‌ना, जाना, लड़्‌ना
११२.१० देख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ११३
११३.४ रख्‌ना, देना
११३.५ आना
११३.७ जान्‌ना
११३.८ देना, जाना

ग़ज़ल् ११४
११४.२ उड़ाना, लेना, जाना
११४.४ आना
११४.७ खुल्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ११५
११५.१ भर्‌ना, आना, रोना, सताना
११५.२ बैठ्‌ना, उठाना
११५.३ छिपाना
११५.४ आना
११५.५ पाना
११५.६ रह्‌ना, जाना, आज़्माना
११५.७ मिल्‌ना, बुलाना
११५.८ जाना
११५.९ (बंद्‌ना), रोना, कर्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् ११६
११६.१ दिखाना, पूछ्‌ना, बताना
११६.२ कह्‌ना, निकाल्‌ना
११६.३ पीना, लेना, आना
११६.४ बन्‌ना, कह्‌ना, देख्‌ना, बैठ्‌ना
११६.५ बैठ्‌ना
११६.६ कह्‌ना, चाह्‌ना, उठाना, देना
११६.७ कह्‌ना, जाना, देख्‌ना, चल्‌ना, लग्‌ना
११६.८ रह्‌ना, बन्‌ना, जाना
११६.९ मार्‌ना
११६.१० कह्‌ना, पढ़्‌ना, सुनाना

ग़ज़ल् ११७
११७.२ चाह्‌ना, भर्‌ना
११७.३ आना, जाना

ग़ज़ल् ११८
११८.१ जाना, रह्‌ना, देना, कह्‌ना, भूल्‌ना
११८.२ रह्‌ना, ड़ाल्‌ना, देना, लेना
११८.३ लग्‌ना
११८.४ जल्‌ना, खाना

ग़ज़ल् ११९
११९.२ छोड़्‌ना
११९.४ कह्‌ना
११९.५ डाल्‌ना, खेँच्‌ना
११९.६ समझ्‌ना
११९.९ मिट्‌ना
११९१.१० उठ्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १२०
१२०.१ जान्‌ना
१२०.२ देना
१२०.३ निकल्‌ना
१२०.४ शर्माना, रख्‌ना
१२०.५ देख्‌ना, समझ्‌ना
१२०.६ बन्‌ना
१२०.७ आना, समझ्‌ना, ढूँढ्‌ना
१२०.८ गाढ़्‌ना
१२०.९ देना, देख्‌ना, झुक्‌ना, देना
१२०.१० लुट्‌ना, सोना, रह्‌ना, खटक्‌ना, देना
१२०.११ सक्‌ना, रख्‌ना, खोद्‌ना, जाना

ग़ज़ल् १२१
१२१.१ धोना, पीना, रख्‌ता, खेँच्‌ना
१२१.२ देना, तोड़्‌ना, जाना
१२१.३ भाग्‌ना, दाब्‌ना
१२१.४ फिर्‌ना
१२१.५ हिल्‌ना
१२१.६ उड़्‌ना, उलझ्‌ना
१२१.७ आना, दिख्‌ना
१२१.८ पीना, धोना

ग़ज़ल् १२२
१२२.२ देख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १२३
१२३.१ पहुँच्, आना
१२३.२ रख्‌ना
१२३.६ उड़ाना, चाह्‌ना, हँस्‌ना, बोल्‌ना
१२३.८ कह्‌ना
१२३.९ आना, खुल्‌ना
१२३.११ लेना, जाना
१२३.१२ रोना, हँस्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १२४
१२४.१ जान्‌ना, पूछ्‌ना, रह्‌ना
१२४.२ बच्‌ना
१२४.३ मान्‌ना
१२४.४ उभर्‌ना, मर्‌ना
१२४.५ छुट्‌ना
१२४.६ सुन्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १२५
१२५.१ जाना, कह्‌ना
१२५.२ जाना
१२५.५ उलझ्‌ना, देख्‌ना
१२५.६ कह्‌ना
१२५.७ पूछ्‌ना
१२५.८ मान्‌ना
१२५.९ बताना, देख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १२६
१२६.१ देना
१२६.२ छेड़्‌ना, पूछ्‌ना
१२६.३ लग्‌ना, लाना
१२६.४ फोड़्‌ना, ठहर्‌ना
१२६.५ कह्‌ना, (डर्‌ना), गिर्‌ना
१२६.६ कह्‌ना, सक्‌ना, बत्लाना
१२६.७ देख्‌ना, खेँच्‌ना
१२६.९ आज़्माना, सताना, कह्‌ना, लेना
१२६.१० कह्‌ना, मिल्‌ना
१२६.११ निकाल्‌ना, चाह्‌ना, कह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १२७
१२७.१ रह्‌ना, चल्‌ना
१२७.२ बनाना, चाह्‌ना
१२७.३ पड़्‌ना, (मर्‌ना), जाना

ग़ज़ल् १२८

ग़ज़ल् १२९
Common: पूछ्‌ना
१२९.२ उठाना
१२९.७ कह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १३०
Common: उठाना

ग़ज़ल् १३१
Common: चाह्‌ना
१३१.३ देना
१३१.४ सीख्‌ना
१३१.६ निकल्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १३२
१३२.१ (सोना), रह्‌ना
१३२.२ रह्‌ना
१३२.३ बख़्श्‌ना
१३२.५ फ़र्माना
१३२.६ लेना, बैठ्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १३३
१३३.१ आना
१३३.२ लग्‌ना, देना
१३३.४ देख्‌ना, जाना, रह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १३४
१३४.१ रह्‌ना, लेना
१३४.२ सुनाना, देना, बुलाना, लेना

ग़ज़ल् १३५
१३५.१ रख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १३६
१३६.१ पाना, उठाना, देख्‌ना, आना
१३६.२ खुल्‌ना, खाना, जलाना
१३६.३ लिपट्‌ना, छिपाना
१३६.४ देख्‌ना, आना, उठ्‌ना
१३६.५ मर्‌ना, आना, जाना
१३६.६ सक्‌ना, उठाना
१३६.७ कह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १३७
१३७.१ धोना, बैठ्‌ना, डूब्‌ना
१३७.२ बुझाना, देना

ग़ज़ल् १३८
१३८.४ आना
१३८.५ देना, रह्‌ना
१३८.६ बैठ्‌ना
१३८.७ मिटाना, देना, कह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १३९
१३९.३ आना
१३९.४ बाँध्‌ना
१३९.५ लग्‌ना
१३९.७ जाना, छिप्‌ना
१३९.८ मिल्‌ना, जाना, उठ्‌ना
१३९.९ जाना, रह्‌ना, लग्‌ना, पाना
१३९.१० काट्‌ना
१३९.१२ पकड़्‌ना, रह्‌ना, जाना

ग़ज़ल् १४०
१४०.१ देना, मर्‌ना
१४०.२ लेना, जान्‌ना
१४०.५ पीना, मिल्‌ना
१४०.६ मर्‌ना, जाना

ग़ज़ल् १४१
१४१.१ समझ्‌ना
१४१.२ सुनाना
१४१.७ आना, जाना

ग़ज़ल् १४२
१४२.१ खोद्‌ना, पूछ्‌ना, (दब्‌ना)
१४२.२ दिलाना

ग़ज़ल् १४३
१४३.१ लिख्‌ना, जाना
१४३.२ जल्‌ना
१४३.३ बुझ्‌ना, उठ्‌ना
१४३.५ कह्‌ना
१४३.६ खेँच्‌ना, खुल्‌ना, जाना

ग़ज़ल् १४४
१४४.१ गुज़र्‌ना, बदल्‌ना, देना

ग़ज़ल् १४५
१४५.१ कह्‌ना
१४५.२ कह्‌ना
१४५.३ देख्‌ना
१४५.४ लेना, मिल्‌ना
१४५.५ सोना
१४५.९ जान्‌ना
१४५.११ उड़्‌ना, सक्‌ना
१४५.१४ बह्लाना

ग़ज़ल् १४६
१४६.२ रख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १४७
१४७.१ कह्‌ना
१४७.३ देख्‌ना
१४७.६ पूछ्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १४८
१४८.८ देना
१४८.९ डाल्‌ना
१४८.१० छेड़्‌ना, चल्‌ना, जाना

ग़ज़ल् १४९
१४९.२ ढूँड्‌ना
१४९.३ रह्‌ना
१४९.४ आना, लग्‌ना
१४९.५ खिल्‌ना
१४९.९ मिल्‌ना
१४९.१० देना

ग़ज़ल् १५०
१५०.१ गुज़र्‌ना, रख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १५१
१५१.१ बन्‌ना, बैठ्‌ना, रह्‌ना
१५१.२ डर्‌ना, जाना, जाना
१५१.३ रख्‌ना, फिर्‌ना
१५१.४ गुज़र्‌ना, कह्‌ना
१५१.५ पूछ्‌ना
१५१.६ तराश्‌ना, चल्‌ना
१५१.७ पड़्‌ना, देना, लग्‌ना
१५१.९ भूल्‌ना
१५१.१० कह्‌ना, मिल्‌ना, मान्‌ना, सुन्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १५२
१५२.३ भाग्‌ना
१५२.६ मान्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १५३
Common: जाना
१५३.१ देख्‌ना, आना
१५३.२ धोना, पिघल्‌ना
१५३.३ आना
१५३.४ खेँच्‌ना, लेना, घब्राना
१५३.६ खोना, पाना
१५३.७ सुन्‌ना, बैठ्‌ना
१५३.८ बन्‌ना, खुल्‌ना, उड़्‌ना
१५३.९ खेँच्‌ना
१५३.१० भाग्‌ना, ठहर्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १५४
१५४.१ रख्‌ना, देना
१५४.२ लेना
१५४.३ देना
१५४.४ रह्‌ना, देना
१५४.५ रह्‌ना, बख़्श्‌ना
१५४.६ देना
१५४.७ खोना, देना

ग़ज़ल् १५५
१५५.३ उठाना

ग़ज़ल् १५६
१५६.१ उग्‌ना, रह्‌ना, आना

ग़ज़ल् १५७
१५७.१ (मर्‌ना), जाना, चल्‌ना
१५७.२ देख्‌ना, कह्‌ना, जान्‌ना
१५७.४ मिल्‌ना, जाना
१५७.५ खेँच्‌ना, उठ्‌ना, सक्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १५८
Common: जाना
१५८.१ उतर्‌ना
१५८.२ जाना
१५८.३ उठ्‌ना
१५८.४ उड़्‌ना, फिर्‌ना
१५८.५ देख्‌ना
१५८.७ बिखर्‌ना
१५८.८ मिट्‌ना, गुज़र्‌ना
१५८.९ मार्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १५९
Common: मिल्‌ना
१५९.१ रोना
१५९.३ पीना
१५९.४ कह्‌ना
१५९.५ देख्‌ना
१५९.६ जान्‌ना
१५९.७ देख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १६०
१६०.१ ठान्‌ना
१६०.३ देख्‌ना
१६०.४ देना, देख्‌ना
१६०.६ चुक्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १६१
Common: आना
१६१.४ जान्‌ना
१६१.६ चीख़्‌ना
१६१.९ मर्‌ना
१३९.१० जाना

ग़ज़ल् १६२
१६२.३ रख्‌ना, पूछ्‌ना
१६२.७ आना
१६२.८ जान्‌ना
१६२.१० जान्‌ना
१६२.११ मान्‌ना, आना

ग़ज़ल् १६३
Common: आना
१६३.१ कह्‌ना, घब्राना
१६३.२ कह्‌ना, पूछ्‌ना
१६३.३ आना, समझ्‌ना
१६३.४ घब्राता, भाग्‌ना
१६३.५ डर्‌ना, झगड़्‌ना, समझ्‌ना
१६३.६ सुन्‌ना, देख्‌ना, मिल्‌ना, खोना
१६३.७ बैठ्‌ना
१६३.८ डुबोना
१६३.९ जाना, रोना

ग़ज़ल् १६४
१६४.२ खोद्‌ना, लग्‌ना
१६४.८ मर्‌ना
१६४.९ खुल्‌ना
१६४.१० रह्‌ना
१६४.११ देना

ग़ज़ल् १६५

ग़ज़ल् १६६
१६६.२ बख़्श्‌ना
१६६.४ उड़्‌ना, जाना
१६६.५ रोना

ग़ज़ल् १६७
१६७.१ जाना
१६७.२ उड़्‌ना, पाना
१६७.३ मिट्‌ना
१६७.४ पूछ्‌ना
१६७.६ लिख्‌ना, रह्‌ना
१६७.८ उठ्‌ना, जाना
१६७.९ खिँच्‌ना, सक्‌ना, आना
१६७.१० छोड़्‌ना, (लगाना)

ग़ज़ल् १६८
१६८.२ सुन्‌ना
१६८.३ देना, कह्‌ना, मिल्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १६९
१६९.४ देख्‌ना
१६९.७ देख्‌ना, सुन्‌ना
१६९.९ देख्‌ना
१६९.११ देख्‌ना, आना
१६९.१२ रह्‌ना, जाना
१६९.१३ आना

ग़ज़ल् १७०
१७०.१ आना
१७०.२ देना
१७०.३ निकाल्‌ना, रोना
१७०.५ उठ्‌ना
१७०.७ खाई

ग़ज़ल् १७१
१७१.२ समझ्‌ना
१७१.३ चटक्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १७२
१७२.१ रह्‌ना
१७२.२ देख्‌ना
१७२.३ पूछ्‌ना, छेड़्ना
१७२.४ देना

ग़ज़ल् १७३
Common: आना
१७३.२ फिर्‌ना
१७३.४ देना
१७३.५ पाना
१७३.६ सूख्‌ना, जाना
१७३.७ मर्‌ना, जाना
१७३.९ उलझ्‌ना
१७३.११ समझ्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १७४
१७४.२ देना, कह्‌ना, आना
१७४.३ लेना, आना
१७४.४ देना, मिल्‌ना
१७४.५ देख्‌ना, आना, जाना, समझ्‌ना
१७४.६ देख्‌ना, पाना, कह्‌ना
१७४.८ मिल्‌ना, जाना
१७४.९ रख्‌ना
१७४.१० रख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १७५
१७५.१ मर्‌ना
१७५.३ लगाना, बन्‌ना
१७५.७ समझ्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १७६
१७६.१ चल्‌ना
१७६.२ चाह्‌ना, लिख्‌ना, चल्‌ना, सक्‌ना
१७६.३ झाड़्‌ना, उठाना
१७६.४ देना, पहुँच्‌ना
१७६.५ उठाना, आना
१७६.६ समझ्‌ना
१७६.७ आना, खाना

ग़ज़ल् १७७
१७७.१ कह्‌ना
१७७.२ छेड़्‌ना, देख्‌ना
१७७.३ समझ्‌ना, देख्‌ना
१७७.५ ठहर्‌ना, उठाना, लाना
१७७.६ चाह्‌ना
१७७.७ जाना, आना
१७७.१३ रख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १७८
१७८.१ कह्‌ना
१७८.२ बताना
१७८.४ चिपक्‌ना, रह्‌ना
१७८.५ जल्‌ना, कुरेद्‌ना
१७८.६ दौड़्‌ना, फिर्‌ना, टपक्‌ना
१७८.८ पीना, देख्‌ना, लेना
१७८.९ रह्‌ना, कह्‌ना
१७८.१० फिर्‌ना, इत्राना

ग़ज़ल् १७९
१७९.१ छेड़्‌ना, कह्‌ना, चल्‌ना, निकल्‌ना, पीना
१७९.३ देना
७९.४ आना, जाना, जीना

ग़ज़ल् १८०
१८०.१ लेना, रह्‌ना
१८०.३ लिख्‌ना
१८०.४ पीना, धोना
१८०.५ फँसाना
१८०.६ देख्‌ना, फिर्‌ना
१८०.७ देना

ग़ज़ल् १८१
१८१.१ आना
१८१.२ देख्‌ना, कह्‌ना
१८१.३ जाना
१८१.४ मिल्‌ना, बन्‌ना, जाना
१८१.५ देख्‌ना, देना
१८१.७ पाना

ग़ज़ल् १८२
१८२.२ रह्‌ना, सोना, फिर्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १८३
१८३.१ सुन्‌ना
१८३.२ पूछ्‌ना, देख्‌ना
१८३.३ रोना
१८३.४ भूल्‌ना, जाना
१८३.५ रुक्‌ना, जाना, देख्‌ना
१८३.६ रख्‌ना
१८३.८ खुल्‌ना, जाना
१८३.९ देना

ग़ज़ल् १८४
Common: माँग्‌ना
१८४.२ जान्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १८५
१८५.१ आना
१८५.३ सिखाना, आना

ग़ज़ल् १८६
१८६.१ सक्‌ना, लिख्‌ना, देना
१८६.२ आना
१८६.३ डर्‌ना, सुन्‌ना
१८६.४ रह्‌ना
१८६.५ लगाना, पूछ्‌ना
१८६.६ रह्‌ता

ग़ज़ल् १८७
१८७.१ देना
१८७.२ चल्‌ना
१८७.३ फिर्‌ना, पीना
१८७.५ रह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १८८
Common: चाह्‌ना
१८८.२ मिल्‌ना, जाना

ग़ज़ल् १८९
Common: चाह्‌ना
१८९.२ खेँच्‌ना
१८९.३ समझ्‌ना
१८९.५ छिपाना, छोड़्‌ना
१८९.६ खोना, देख्‌ना
१८९.७ चल्‌ना
१८९.८ मर्‌ना, देख्‌ना
१८९.९ देख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १९०
१९०.१ भाग्‌ना
१९०.३ रह्‌ना
१९०.७ मार्‌ना
१९०.१० टपक्‌ना
१९०.११ रह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १९१
Common: बन्‌ना
१९१.१ सुना‌ना, बनाना
१९१.२ बुलाना, जाना, आना
१९१.३ समझ्‌ना, छोड़्‌ना, देना, भूल्‌ना जाना, सताना
१९१.४ फिर्‌ना, लेना, पूछ्‌ना, छिपाना
१९१.५ आना, लगाना
१९१.६ कह्‌ना, सक्‌ना, छोड़्‌ना, उठाना
१९१.७ देख्‌ना, आना, रह्‌ना, चाह्‌ना, बुलाना
१९१.८ गिर्‌ना, उठाना, उठ्‌ना, पड़्‌ना, बनाना
१९१.९ लगाना, बुझाना

ग़ज़ल् १९२
१९२.४ पाना
१९२.५ लिख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १९३
Common: देना
१९३.१ आना
१९३.२ रोना, देना
१९३.३ देख्‌ना
१९३.४ पिलाना, देना
१९३.५ फुल्‌ना, जाना, दाब्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १९४
१९४.३ आना
१९४.५ आना
१९४.६ कह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १९५
Common: जाना
१९५.२ समझ्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १९६
१९६.२ बोना
१९६.४ खाना
१९६.५ गुज़र्‌ना, रह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १९७
१९७.१ पूछ्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १९८
१९८.१ मर्‌ना
१९८.३ कह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् १९९
१९९.२ मिल्‌ना
१९९.३ सुन्‌ना
१९९.४ चल्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २००
२००.२ मर्‌ना, देख्‌ना, रह्‌ना, जाना
२००.३ (देख्‌ना), आना

ग़ज़ल् २०१
Common: कह्‌ना
२०१.१ देना
२०१.२ आना, रह्‌ना
२०१.३ रह्‌ना
२०१.४ देना, रख्‌ना
२०१.५ (समझ्‌ना)
२०१.७ लड़्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २०२
२०२.१ देख्‌ना, जाना
२०२.२ बन्‌ना
२०२.३ जान्‌ता
२०२.४ लग्‌ना, लिख्‌ना, देना
२०२.६ लेना, देना, जाना
२०२.७ आना, सौँप्‌ना
२०२.९ देना

ग़ज़ल् २०३
२०३.३ चाह्‌ना
२०३.५ लगाना, जाना, आना

ग़ज़ल् २०४
२०४.५ आना, देख्‌ना, कह्‌ना
२०४.६ रह्‌ना
२०४.८ (पड़्‌ना), रह्‌ना
२०४.९ देख्‌ना
२०४.१० आना, देख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २०५
Common: जाना
२०५.१ आना, शर्‌माना
२०५.२ खेँच्‌ना, खिँच्‌ना
२०५.३ घब्राना
२०५.४ पूछ्‌ना, जाना, बोल्‌ना
२०५.५ सँभल्‌ना, देना, छूट्‌ना
२०५.६ (देख्‌ना), जाना
२०५.७ भाग्‌ना, ठहर्‌ना
२०५.८ सौँप्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २०६
२०६.२ जान्‌ना, मिट्‌ना
२०६.३ तोड़्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २०७
Common: देना
२०७.१ देख्‌ना, बत्लाना
२०७.२ देख्‌ना, आना, जाना, पहुँचाना
२०७.३ दिख्लाना, खोल्‌ना
२०७.४ बन्‌ना, जाना, उल्झाना

ग़ज़ल् २०८
२०८.४ घिस्‌ना
२०८.५ पूछ्‌ना, देख्‌ना
२०८.६ कह्‌ना, बैठ्‌ना
२०८.७ देख्‌ना, रख्‌ना, देना
२०८.८ गुज़र्‌ना, कह्‌ना, लेना
२०८.९ रोक्‌ना, खेँच्‌ना
२०८.१० कह्‌ना
२०८.११ मर्‌ना, जाना, आना
२०८.१२ आना, देख्‌ना
२०८.१३ रह्‌ना, देना
२०८.१४ कह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २०९
Common: कह्‌ना
२०९.३ उतर्‌ना, जाना
२०९.५ बन्‌ना
२०९.६ लिख्‌ना
२०९.८ रह्‌ना, देना, कट्‌ना
२०९.११ आना, लग्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २१०
Common: जाना
२१०.१ रोना, धोना
२१०.४ कह्‌ना
२१०.५ पूछ्‌ना
२१०.६ जाना
२१०.७ उठाना, देख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २११
२११.२ कह्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २१२

ग़ज़ल् २१३

ग़ज़ल् २१४
२१४.३ बन्‌ना
२१४.४ रोना
२१४.११ पीट्‌ना, तोड़्‌ना, जाना
२१४.१४ रख्‌ना, देख्‌ना
२१४.१६ दिख्लाना, तोड़्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २१५
२१५.४ कट्‌ना, कह्‌ना, सुन्‌ना
२१५.५ बक्‌ना, रह्‌ना, समझ्‌ना
२१५.६ सुन्‌ना, कह्‌ना
२१५.७ रोक्‌ना, लेना, चल्‌ना, बख़्श्‌ना, देना
२१५.१० उठ्ना, जाना

ग़ज़ल् २१६
२१६.२ जान्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २१७
२१७.१ डराना, आना
२१७.२ उगाना
२१७.३ लेना, जाना
२१७.४ आना
२१७.५ उठाना, देना, देख्‌ना, मर्‌ना, जाना
२१७.६ डराना, चाह्‌ना, दिखाना
२१७.७ आना
२१७.८ उठाना
२१७.९ सताना
२१७.१० बिठाना

ग़ज़ल् २१८
२१८.१ रौँद्‌ना, इत्राना
२१८.२ देख्‌ना
२१८.३ खाना

ग़ज़ल् २१९
Common: निकल्‌ना
२१९.२ डर्‌ना, रह्‌ना
२१९.३ सुन्‌ना, आना
२१९.४ (खुल्‌ना), जाना
२१९.५ लिख्वाना, रख्‌ना
२१९.६ आना
२१९.७ पाना
२१९.८ (मर्‌ना), देख्‌ना, जीना
२१९.९ जान्‌ना, जाना

ग़ज़ल् २२०
Common: जाना

ग़ज़ल् २२१
२२१.३ आना

ग़ज़ल् २२२

ग़ज़ल् २२३
२२३.१ रख्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २२४
२२४.१ आना

ग़ज़ल् २२५
२२५.१ गिर्‌ना, जाना

ग़ज़ल् २२६
२२६.४ लाना, चाह्‌ना
२२६.५ देना

ग़ज़ल् २२७
Common: निकल्‌ना
२२७.२ बन्‌ना
२२७.३ पूछ्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २२८
२२८.४ बन्‌ना
२२८.५ छिड़क्‌ना
२२८.६ आना, पड़्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २२९
Common: कह्‌ना
२२९.१ देना, लाना
२२९.२ लाना, रख्‌ना
२२९.३ फूँक्‌ना
२२९.४ डाल्‌ना
२२९.७ मान्‌ना
२२९.८ दिखाना

ग़ज़ल् २३०
२३०.३ जल्‌ना
२३०.९ पड़्‌ना
२४०.१० मिल्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २३१
२३१.१ खुल्‌ना
२३१.२ पड़्‌ना
२३१.३ पीना, पिलाना
२३१.४ लड़्‌ता, उठाना, सुन्‌ना
२३१.५ उड़्‌ना
२३१.६ निकाल्‌ना
२३१.७ मिल्‌ना
२३१.९ लेना, चल्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २३२
२३२.१ खाना
२३२.२ कह्‌ना, आना
२३२.६ छोड़्‌ना
२३२.७ बन्‌ना
२३२.८ टपक्‌ना, रह्‌ना, देना,
२३२.९ जान्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २३३
२३३.३ रुक्‌ना, लग्‌ना
२३३.५ चल्‌ना
२३३.६ भर्‌ना, रह्‌ना
२३३.८ जाना
२३३.९ रह्‌ना
२३३.१० दौड़्‌ना
२३३.११ चाह्‌ना, खोल्‌ना
२३३.१२ माँग्‌ना
२३३.१३ ताक्‌ना
२३३.१५ पड़्‌ना, रह्‌ना
२३३.१६ ढूँढ्‌ना, बैठ्‌ना, रह्‌ना
२३३.१७ छेड़्‌ना, बैठ्‌ना

ग़ज़ल् २३४
२३४.१ रह्‌ना
२३४.२ रख्‌ना
२३४.३ बन्‌ना
२३४.४ रह्‌ना
२३४.५ रख्‌ना
२३४.७ समझ्‌ना, आना, उठ्‌ना
२३४.८ चाह्‌ना
२३४.९ देना, लग्‌ना, बन्‌ना
२३४.१० आना
२३४.११ बन्‌ना
२३४.१२ बन्‌ना
२३४.१३ चाह्‌ना

रोते भी रहे , हँस्‌ते भी रहे ...

2010-08-03T11:23:00.013-05:00

In Lighter Vein

During a spaced-out drive today, I was listening to a बिहाग्-esque rendition by बेगम् अख़्तर् of सुदर्शन् फ़ाख़िर्'s "ऽइश्क़् मेँ ग़ैरत्-ए जज़्बात् ने रोने न दिया" when I realized that I could wholesale replace "रोना" with "हँस्‌ना" and it would still mean something tangible (albeit, as a spoof). So, here goes, with more than due apologies to फ़ाख़िर्:

(१)
ऽइश्क़् मेँ ग़ैरत्-ए जज़्बात् ने हँस्‌ने न दिया
वर्नः क्या बात् थी किस् बात् ने हँस्‌ने न दिया

(२)
आप् कह्‌ते थे कि हँस्‌ने से न बद्‌लेँगे नसीब्
ऽउम्र् भर् आप् की इस् बात् ने हँस्‌ने न दिया

(३)
हँस्‌ने वालोँ से कहो उन् का भी हँस्‌ना हँस्‌ लेँ
जिन् को मज्बूरी-ए हालात् ने हँस्‌ने न दिया

(४)
तुझ्‌से मिल्‌कर् हमेँ हँस्‌ना था, बहुत् हँस्‌ना था
तंगी-ए वक़्त्-ए मुलाक़ात् ने हँस्‌ने न दिया

(५)
एक् दो रोज् का सद्मः हो तो हँस्‌लेँ "फ़ाख़िर्"
हम् को हर् रोज़् के सद्मात् ने हँस्‌ने न दिया

Interestingly, the मत्लऽ (शॆऽर् १) and मक़्तऽ (शॆऽर् ५) actually work really well; infact, the मक़्तऽ is perfect. It's only शॆऽर् २ which stands out as odd. शॆऽर् ३ kind of makes sense. शॆऽर् ४ reads rather nicely.

The Hindi-Urdu Dichotomy

2010-07-17T23:06:00.055-05:00

The Hindi-Urdu Question

Urdu and Hindi are generally held to be two distinct languages in popular opinion. And, indeed, viewed through the narrow sociolinguistic lens, there is no arguing that these are two distinct languages. However, what about linguists at large? Do they agree?

Much work on addressing this issue has already been done. So, instead of re-inventing the wheel, allow me to simply borrow from existing work and synthesize it in this post. This post remains a work-in-progress and will continue to be updated and augmented as and when I get the opportunity to do so.

Terminology adopted for this post

Hindi: A specific standard register based off the Khari Boli (खड़ी बोली) dialect of the Dehli region. It is now the National Language of India.

Urdu: A specific standard register based off the Khari Boli (खड़ी बोली) dialect of the Dehli region. It is now the National Language of Pakistan, and also accorded the status of an official language in the Constitution of India.

Hindvi: An umbrella term that not only encompasses the varieties of Khari Boli tongues but also non-Khari Boli tongues in the North Indian subcontinent. (Sometimes, the word Hindustani is used for this purpose, and more commonly the umbrella term Hindi is used which can lead to confusion if the distinction is not clear.)

Two Languages or Two Dialects?

The Wikipedia entries which already condense the research and opinions in one place are a good starting point. The introductory section of the Wikipedia page for Urdu states the following (extract 17-Jul-2010, emphasis mine):

Urdu is often contrasted with Hindi, another standardised form of Hindustani. The main differences between the two are that Standard Urdu is conventionally written in Nastaliq calligraphy style of the Perso-Arabic script and draws vocabulary more heavily from Persian and Arabic, while Standard Hindi is conventionally written in Devanāgarī and draws vocabulary from Sanskrit comparatively more heavily. Most linguists nonetheless consider Urdu and Hindi to be two standardized forms of the same language [20]; others classify them separately [21], while some consider any differences to be sociolinguistic [22].
...
[20] "Hindi, Hindustani, Urdu could be considered co-dialects, but have important sociolinguistic differences.", Ethnologue Report for Hindi.
[21] Ralph Russell, “Some notes on Hindi and Urdu", The Annual of Urdu Studies, vol. 11, 1996, pg. 204.
[22] Asghar Ali Engineer, "Urdu and its Contribution to Secular Values", May 1998.

I personally lean towards the first and the third options. I agree that at the sociolinguistic level the two languages can easily be argued to be distinct. However, I join the linguists who hold that they are two standard forms of the same Khari Boli (खड़ी बोली) dialect within the Hindvi dialect soup. Effectively, that makes them sister dialects in the Hindvi family of tongues.

The Wikipedia entry for Hindi has a full section devoted to a more formal appreciation of the differences. The paragraphs of interest are (extract 17-Jul-2010, emphasis mine):

Standard Hindi and Urdu are understood from a linguistic perspective to indicate two or more specific dialects in a continuum of dialects that make up the Hindustani language (also known as "Hindi-Urdu"). The terms "Hindi" and "Urdu" themselves can be used with multiple meanings, but when referring to standardized dialects of Hindustani, they are the two points in a pluricentric language.
...
Linguistically, there is no dispute that Hindi and Urdu are dialects of a single language, Hindustani/Hindi-Urdu. However, from a political perspective, there are pressures to classify them as separate languages. Those advocating this view point to the main differences between standard Urdu and standard Hindi:
the source of borrowed vocabulary;
the script used to write them (for Urdu, an adaptation of the Perso-Arabic script written in Nasta'liq style; for Hindi, an adaptation of the Devanagari script);
Urdu's use of five consonants borrowed from Persian script.
Such distinctions, however, are insufficient to classify Hindi and Urdu as separate languages from a linguistic perspective.
...
The rubric "Hindi" is often used as a catch-all for those idioms in the North Indian dialect continuum that are not recognised as languages separate from the language of the Delhi region. Bihari and Chhattisgarhi for example, while sometimes recognised as being distinct languages, are often considered dialects of Hindi. Many other local idioms, such as the Bhili languages, which do not have a distinct identity defined by an established literary tradition, are almost always considered dialects of Hindi. In other words, the boundaries of "Hindi" have little to do with mutual intelligibility, and instead depend on social perceptions of what constitutes a language.

The other use of the word "Hindi" is in reference to Standard Hindi, the Khari Boli register of the Delhi dialect of Hindi (generally called Hindustani) with its direct loanwords from Sanskrit. Standard Urdu is also a standardized form of Hindustani. Such a state of affairs, with two standardized forms of what is essentially one language, is known as a pluricentric language.

The above extracts outline the nominal linguistic opinion on this 'false' dichotomy between Hindi and Urdu; i.e. the linguistic consensus is that they are both dialects in a 'clinal continuum'.

But don't different scripts mean different languages?

The relationship between a language and a script is many-to-many (M:N). In other words, a single language could adopt multiple scripts (e.g. Konkani is written in Roman, Kannada, Devanagari scripts depending on the where the speaker is located), or a single script may be used by multiple languages (e.g. Devanagari is used by both Marathi and Hindi). Further, many languages do not have any form of writing at all. As a result, a script does not form a basis for distinguishing between dialects and languages.

Also, consider that writing, and thus scripts, are relatively modern inventions compared to language. If scripts were the primary way to distinguish between languages, then for the era prior to the invention of scripts one would be hard-pressed to argue about language and dialect variation.

Finally, the script question is a non-issue linguistically because linguistic analysis relies on phonology, morphology, syntax, pragmatics, and semantics.

A Comparative Grammar

A good starting resource on comparative studies of modern Indic languages is the three volume book "A Comparative Grammar of the Modern Aryan Languages of India" by John Beames. I reproduce below some of the relevant extracts from that book. Some of the contextual information is dated, though the linguistic aspects pertaining to Hindi/Urdu are not. (Again, all emphasis mine.)

{pp. 31-32}: Under the general head of Hindi are included many dialects, some of which differ widely from one another, though not so much so as to give them the right to be considered separate languages. Throughout the whole of this vast region, though the dialects diverge considerably, one common universal form of speech is recognized, and all educated persons use it. This common dialect had its origin apparently in the country around Delhi, the ancient capital, and the form of Hindi spoken in that neighbourhood was adopted by degrees as the basis of a new phase of the language, in which, though the inflections of nouns and verbs remained purely and absolutely Hindi, and a vast number of the commonest vocables were retained, a large quantity of Persian and Arabic and even Turkish words found a place, just as Latin and Greek words do in English. Such words, however, in no way altered or influenced the language itself, which, when its inflectional or phonetic elements are considered, remains still a pure Aryan dialect, just as pure in the pages of Wali or Sauda, as it is in those of Tulsi Das or Bihari Lal. It betrays therefore a radical misunderstanding of the whole bearings of the question, and of the whole science of philology, to speak of Urdu and Hindi as two distinct languages. When certain agitators cry out that the language of the English courts of law in Hindustan should be Hindi and not Urdu, what they mean is that clerks and native writers should be restrained from importing too many Persian and Arabic words into their writings, and should use instead the honest old Sanskrit Tadbhavas with which the Hindi abounds. By all means let it be so, only let it not be said that the Urdu is a distinct language from Hindi. [The most correct way of speaking would be to say "the Urdu dialect of Hindi," or "the Urdu phase of Hindi." It would be quite impossible in Urdu to compose a single sentence without using Aryan words, though many sentences might be composed in which not a single Persian word occurred.]
...
{page 39}: By a curious caprice, Hindi, when it uses Arabic words, is assumed to become a new language, and is called by a new name - Urdu; but when Panjabi or Sindhi do the same, they are not so treated.

Further Reading

There are other published works that trace the development of Hindi/Urdu literature, the evolution of these two dialects under the Hindvi umbrella, and related topics.

Alok Rai, "The Persistence of Hindustani", The Annual of Urdu Studies, vol. 20, 2005, pp. 135-144.
T. Grahame Bailey, "Urdu: The Name and the Language", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, no. 2, 1930, pp. 391-400.
T. Grahame Bailey, "The Pronunciation of Urdu and Hindi", Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, vol. 2(3), 1922, pp. 539-547.
Ralph Russell, "Some Notes on Hindi and Urdu", The Annual of Urdu Studies, vol. 11, 1996, pp. 203-208. (Russell advocates the two-language theory but largely on the basis that the standard/literary forms are mutually unintelligible. However, this is not the nominal linguistic consensus.)
David Lelyveld, "Zuban-e Urdu-e Mu`alla and the Idol of Linguistic Origins", The Annual of Urdu Studies, vol. 9, 1994, pp. 57-67.
Barz, Yadav, "An Introduction to Hindi and Urdu", Munshiram Manorharlal Publications, 2000.
Shackle, Snell, "Hindi and Urdu since 1800 - A common reader", Heritage Publishers, 1990.
Shantanu Phukan, "The Rustic Beloved: Ecology of Hindi in a Persianate World", The Annual of Urdu Studies, vol. 15, 2000, pp. 3-30.

The Hindi-Urdu Issue in the Public Media

Heather Carreiro, "Why Hindi-Urdu is One Language and Arabic is several: Linguistic analysis is not always politically correct", Matador Abroad, 2010.
Dr Syed Mohammed Anwer, "The Hindi-Urdu question", The News, 2010.
Razia Husain, "Story of Hindustani", Chowk, 2009 & "Story of Hindustani II", Chowk, 2010.

Ardipithecus ramidus - Understanding Human Origins

2010-01-30T13:04:00.006-06:00

The following is a précis of the Authors' summaries from the "Ardipithecus issue" of Science (2 October 2009).

Ardipithecus ramidus and the Paleobiology of Early Hominids
White et al., Science, vol. 326, 2009, pg. 64
... This species, substantially more primitive than Australopithecus, resolves many uncertainties about early human evolution, including the nature of the last common ancestor that we shared with the line leading to living chimpanzees and bonobos.
... we have learned that Ar. ramidus was a denizen of woodland with small patches of forest. We have also learned that it probably was more omnivorous than chimpanzees (ripe fruit specialists) and likely fed both in trees and on the ground. It apparently consumed only small amounts of open-environment resources, arguing against the idea than an inhabitation of grasslands was the driving force in the origin of upright walking.
... The numerous recovered teeth and a largely complete skull show that Ar. ramidus had a small face and a reduced canine/premolar complex, indicative of minimal social aggression. Its hands, arms, feet, pelvis, and legs collectively reveal that it moved capably in the trees, supported on its feet and palms (palmigrade clambering), but lacked any characteristics typical of the suspension, vertical climbing, or knuckle-walking of modern gorillas and chimps. Terrestrially, it engaged in a form of bipedality more primitive than that of Australopithecus, and it lacked adaptation to "heavy" chewing related to open environments (seen in later Australopithecus). Ar. ramidus thus indicates that the last common ancestors of humans and African apes were not chimpanzee-like and that both hominids and extant African apes are each highly specialized, but through very different evolutionary pathways.

The Geological, Isotopic, Botanical, Invertebrate, and Lower Vertebrate Surroundings of Ardipithecus ramidus
WoldeGabriel, Science, vol. 326, 2009, pg. 65
... Our combined evidence indicates that Ar. ramidus did not live in the open savanna that was once envisioned to be the predominant habitat of the earliest hominids, but rather in an environment that was humid and cooler than it is today, containing habitats ranging from woodland to forest patches.

Macrovertebrate Paleontology and the Pliocene Habitat of Ardipithecus ramidus
White et al., Science, vol. 326, 2009, pg. 67
... The Ardipithecus-bearing sediments at Aramis now provide fresh evidence that Ar. ramidus lived in a predominantly woodland setting. This and corroborative evidence from fossil assemblages of avian and small mammals imply that a grassland environment was not a major force driving evolution of the earliest hominids.
... These data suggest that the anatomy and behavior of early hominids did not evolve in response to open savanna or mosaic settings. Rather, hominids appear to have originated and persisted within more closed, wooded habitats until the emergence of more ecologically aggressive Australopithecus.

The Ardipithecus ramidus Skull and Its Implications for Hominid Origins
Suwa et al., Science, vol. 326, 2009, pg. 68
... These and an additional feature of the skull hint that, despite its small size, the brain of Ar. ramidus may have already begun to develop some aspects of later hominid-like form and function. The steep orientation of the bone on which the brain stem rests suggests that the base of the Ar. ramidus brain might have been more flexed than apes. In Australopithecus, a flexed cranial base occurs together with expansion of the posterior parietal cortex, a part of the modern human brain involved in aspects of visual and spatial perception.

Paleobiological Implication of the Ardipithecus ramidus Dentition
Suwa et al., Science, vol. 326, 2009, pg. 69
... In modern monkeys and apes, the upper canine is important in male antagonistic behavior, so its subdued shape in early hominids and Ar. ramidus suggests that sexual selection played a primary role in canine reduction. Thus, fundamental reproductive and social behavioral changes probably occurred in hominids long before they had enlarged brains and began to use stone tools.
... Lack of thick enamel indicates that Ar. ramidus was not as adapted to heavy chewing and/or eating abrasive foods as were later Australopithecus or even Homo. The combined evidence from the isotopic content of the enamel, dental wear, and molar structure indicates that the earliest hominid diet was one of generalized omnivory and frugivory and therefore differed from that of Australopithecus and living African apes.

Careful climbing in the Miocene: The Forelimbs of Ardipithecus ramidus and Humans are primitive
Lovejoy et al., Science, vol. 326, 2009, pg. 70
... Ardipithecus did not knuckle-walk like African apes and ... it lacked virtually all of the specializations that protect great ape hands from injury while they climb and feed in trees.
... Our ancestors' hands differed profoundly from those of living great apes, and therefore the two must have substantially differed in the ways they climbed, fed, and nested. It is African apes who have evolved so extensively since we shared our last common ancestor, not humans or our immediate hominid ancestors. Hands of the earliest hominids were less ape-like than ours and quite differed from those of any living form.
Ardipithecus also shows that our ability to use and make tools did not require us to greatly modify our hands. Rather, human grasp and dexterity were long ago inherited almost directly from our last common ancestor with chimpanzees. We now know that our earliest ancestors only had to slightly enlarge their thumbs and shorten their fingers to greatly improve their dexterity for tool-using.

The Pelvis and Femur of Ardipithecus ramidus: The Emergence of Upright Walking
Lovejoy et al., Science, vol. 326, 2009, pg. 71
... Ar. ramidus thus illuminates two critical adaptive transitions in human evolution. In the first, from the human-chimp last common ancestor to Ardipithecus, modifications produced a mosaic pelvis that was useful for both climbing and upright walking. In the second, from Ardipithecus to Australopithecus, modifications produced a pelvis and lower limb that facilitated more effective upright walking and running but that were no longer useful for climbing. Because climbing to feed, nest, and escape predators is vital to all nonhuman primates, both of these transitions would likely have been a response to intense natural selection.

Combining Prehension and Propulsion: The Foot of Ardipithecus ramidus
Lovejoy et al., Science, vol. 326, 2009, pg. 72
... The foot of Ar. ramidus shows that none of these ape-like changes were present in the last common ancestor of African apes and humans. That ancestor, which until now has been thought to be chimpanzee-like, must have had a more monkey-like foot. ... We infer this because humans still have these characteristics, so we must have retained them from our last common ancestor.
... However, Ar. ramidus still had an opposable big toe, unlike any later hominid. Its ability to walk upright was therefore comparatively primitive. Because it had substantially modified the other four toes for upright walking, even while retaining its grasping big toe, the Ardipithecus foot was an odd mosaic that worked for both upright walking and climbing in trees. If our last common ancestor with the chimpanzee had not retained such an unspecialized foot, perhaps upright walking might never have evolved in the first place.

The Great Divides: Ardipithecus ramidus Reveals the Postcrania of Our Last Common Ancestors with African Apes
Lovejoy et al., Science, vol. 326, 2009, pg. 73
... The picture emerging from Ar. ramidus is that this last common ancestor had limb proportions more like those of monkeys than apes. Its feet functioned only partly like those of apes and much more like those of living monkeys and early apes such as Proconsul (which lived more than 15 million years ago). ... None of the changes that apes have evolved to stiffen their hands for suspension and vertical climbing were present, so its locomotion did not resemble that of any living ape.
The hominid descendant of the last common ancestor we shared with chimpanzees (the CLCA), Ardipithecus, became a biped by modifying its upper pelvis without abandoning its grasping big toe. It was therefore an unpredicted and odd mosaic. It appears, unlike Au. afarensis, to have occupied the basal adaptive plateau of hominid natural history.

Reexamining Human Origins in Light of Ardipithecus ramidus
Lovejoy, Science, vol. 326, 2009, pg. 74
... Ardipithecus ramidus ... shows that the anatomy of living African apes is not primitive but instead has evolved specifically within extant ape lineages. The anatomy and behavior of early hominids are therefore unlikely to represent simple amplifications of those shared with modern apes. Instead, Ar. ramidus preserves some of the ancestral characteristics of the last common ancestor with much greater fidelity than do living African apes. Two obvious exceptions are its ability to walk upright and the absence of the large projecting canine tooth in males, derived features that Ardipithecus shares with all later hominids.
... Ar. ramidus ... demonstrates that small canines occurred in hominids long before any of the dental modifications of Australopithecus or the use of stone tools.
... Ar. ramidus was fully capable of bipedality and had evolved a substantially modified pelvis and foot with which to walk upright. At the same time, it preserved the ability to maneuver in trees, because it maintained a grasping big toe and a powerful hip and thigh musculature. Because upright walking provided no energy advantage for Ar. ramidus (it lacked many of the adaptations that evolved in later hominids such as Australopithecus), reproductive success must have been central to its evolution in early hominids.

Comments on "A Biological Rationale for Musical Scales"

2009-12-05T17:33:00.015-06:00

On 03 December 2009, PLoS ONE published an enlightening new study [Gill2009] which attempts to provide a biological rationale for musical scales that are used across various cultures. The gist of its conclusions is

... the component intervals of the most widely used scales throughout history and across cultures are those with the greatest overall spectral similarity to a harmonic series.

However, an initial cursory look suggests that this conclusion doesn't hold for many of the राग्s commonly employed in हिंदूस्तानी music. I submitted my initial opinion and other observations as comments on the paper [Kamath2009].

This post is a broader treatment based on those original comments.

Thoughts and Comments

Notes in a Melodic Context

While Indian music is tonal, it is also strongly dependent on the intervallic distance between successive notes. As a consequence, a melodic sequence like

minor tone (10:9) * semitone (16:15)

yields a rather flat minor-third (32/27) which is missing in Table 1 [Gill2009] because its percentage similarity value is 6.7%.

A very common note 45/32 does not appear in Table 1 [Gill2009]. While 45/32 may have a low percentage similarity value (5.3%), it attains a strong position in the scale due to the melodic context imposed by its neighbours (invariably notes like a rather flat third or flat sixth); e.g. राग् मियाँ की तोड़ी.

There is a whole host of Sharp Fourth notes that are missing in Table 1 [Gill2009]: 25/18, 45/32 (discussed above), 64/45, and 36/25. These notes can have strong positions in a scale depending on melodic context.

Intervals Smaller than Semitone

Some smaller intervals (like 25:24 which occurs between the 6/5 and 5/4 notes) are important in melodic music, even though their percentage similarity values are low (8% for 25:24). These do not show up in Table 1 [Gill2009] either.

In fact, choosing the top 60 intervals has caused quite a few intervals smaller than 100c to be dropped!

Percentage Similarity Metric vs. Melodic Music

Merely using the percentage similarity as a metric suggests that the 27/20 note (8.5%) is more important than, say, 45/32 (5.2%). However, in my opinion, no Indian scale would use 27/20 as a position of rest as it would be construed as a mistuned fourth!

Pentatonic राग्s and a Postulate for हिंदूस्तानी Music

Some very popular pentatonic राग्s don't end up in Table 2 [Gill2009]. For e.g., consider the simple but powerful राग् बैरागी भैरव् (Southern रेवती):

1/1 16/15 4/3 3/2 16/9 2/1

The percentage similarity value comes out to be 38.26% well below the first 50 scales of Table 2 [Gill2009].

Or consider राग् कलावती, another popular and immensely pleasing राग्:

1/1 5/4 3/2 5/3 16/9 2/1

with percentage similarity value 35.46% - once again not in the top 50.

More surprisingly, राग् माल्कौँस्:

1/1 6/5 4/3 8/5 16/9 2/1

has a percentage similarity value of 39%. As a result, it does not occur in Table 2 [Gill2009] either even though it's one of the more popular pentatonic राग्s in practice.

Similar thoughts apply for other pentatonic राग्s employed in Indian music.

It seems incongruous to me that a vast majority of the scales listed in Table 2 [Gill2009] are not really encountered in any musical system, while quite a few that are very popular (at least in हिंदूस्तानी music) fall below the 40% percentage similarity value.

The only way to explain this discrepancy may be that in melodic systems the overall percentage similarity of the scale is not as important as the immediate intervals that are used in transitioning from one note to another.

Given this, I'm tempted to posit that in हिंदूस्तानी music, when moving from one note to another (a pre-defined musical interval away), preference is given to that specific intervallic ratio which has a higher percentage similarity metric (per Table 1 [Gill2009]) - though this preference may be overridden by the overall melodic context.

Comment on South Indian राग्s

Finally, many South Indian Melakartas (generating scales) would automatically be disqualified under the percentage similarity criterion because often two or more semi-tonal intervals occur in sequence bringing down the overall percentage similarity of the scale. e.g. 6 Melakarthas each in the Indu Chakra, Rishi Chakra, Rutu Chakra, and Aditya Chakra (i.e. a total of 24 Melakartas) some of which are very popular even now (for instance, राग् नाट्टई).

References

[Gill2009] Gill, Purves, "A Biological Rationale for Musical Scales", PLoS ONE 4(12):e8144, 2009.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0008144

[Kamath2009] Kamath, "Comment from the Perspective of Indian Music", Comment on "A Biological Rationale for Musical Scales", PLoS ONE 4(12), 2009.

Demolishing "Paradoxes" in Special Relativity: Twins in a Cylindrical Minkowskian Universe

2009-09-20T02:36:00.017-05:00

Introduction

The kinematics of Special Relativity (SR) is predicated on the Lorentz transforms [Lorentz1952]. Although these equations are merely (rescaling) transforms that conserve the covariance of physical laws across relatively moving inertial frames, it is the general perception that the effect of time-dilation (derived from the Lorentz transforms) is a manifest physical effect [1]. As any student of SR knows, this interpretation leads to various paradoxes; notably, the Twin (or Clock) Paradox which is the focus of discussion here [2].

The Twin Paradox

Very simply, the Twin Paradox involves two identical twins, one of whom stays on Earth (frame O) while the other, an astronaut (frame O'), goes on a space-faring journey in a high-speed rocket. Upon her return, the astronaut twin ostensibly finds that she has aged less than her sister who stayed back on Earth - presumably due to effects of time-dilation. This is clearly a paradox because the astronaut twin could very well argue that it's her sister on Earth who should age less, due to the very same effects of time-dilation.

The paradox has been explained away in multiple ways, but mostly by invoking the fact that the situation is not completely symmetrical. For instance, only the astronaut twin actually experiences acceleration when she turns around. Alternatively, the astronaut twin uses two inertial frames - one in each direction of travel - and it's the switch between the frames that causes the asymmetry [Schutz1985].

I submit that all the explanations of the Twin Paradox are faulty; primarily because they seek to explain something that is not a paradox in the first place. And to demonstrate this, I have to re-frame the problem in a way that eliminates the underlying basis for asymmetry.

A Cylindrical Minkowskian Universe

Imagine a flat two-dimensional universe. By flat, I mean a universe with an intrinsic Minkowskian metric. While the intrinsic metric is Minkowskian, SR doesn't place (nor can it place?) a restriction on the extrinsic topology of a Minkowskian universe. As a result, it is perfectly legitimate to consider the case where a Minkowskian universe is extrinsically curved onto itself. In particular, assume that the x coordinate axis of O wraps around to meet itself. The topology of this universe then is that of the surface of a cylinder. The y coordinate axis lies along the length of the cylinder while the x coordinate axis encircles the girth of the cylinder.

Re-framing the Twin Paradox

Now, reconsider the Twin Paradox in a cylindrical Minkowskian universe: The astronaut twin, who sets off in the x direction of the twin on Earth, will eventually 'circumnavigate' the universe and rendezvous with her Earth-bound sister. Under these circumstances, there is no switch of inertial frames nor is there any acceleration. The situation is completely symmetrical, and the usual explanations of the Twin Paradox no longer apply. Thus, under the conventional interpretation of time-dilation as a physical effect, we are once again faced with the paradox of determining which twin has aged more than the other.

Reinterpreting time-dilation

The Lorentz transforms have been verified empirically over and over again. Provisionally, one can then assume that the transforms are correct. Since we nevertheless arrive at a paradox above, the only conclusion is that the physical interpretation of time-dilation in SR is to blame [3].

Since the situation is perfectly symmetrical, the one thing we can be certain about is that neither twin is older than the other. Alternatively put, they've both aged the same amount of time physically.

In other words, the effect of time-dilation derived from the (rescaling) equations of the Lorentz transforms does not actually imply slow down of physical time in a moving inertial frame. The Lorentz transforms are, simply put, rescaling equations that achieve covariance of physical laws across inertial frames. In effect, both O and O' physically age equally. However, if we wish to maintain the form of the laws of physics as we move from frame O to frame O', we need to employ scaling in the units used to express the laws. This scaling is a purely kinematical (and not physical) artefact and it is incorrect for us to infer any physical results from it.

Other Notes

Since my initial explorations on this topic I've come across multiple other expositions that argue that time-dilation is not a physical effect: for instance Kracklauer [Kracklauer2002], and most notably multiple references to Sachs [Sachs1971] (which I've not been able to obtain a personal copy of). However, to the best of my knowledge, no one has used the formulation of the Twin Paradox in a cylindrical Minkowskian universe as stated above, and I believe it is my unique contribution to this problem.

Footnotes

[1] That such a physical effect should arise simply from kinematical considerations is untenable. Unfortunately, even Einstein initially believed time-dilation to be physically true: “... it follows that the time marked by the clock (viewed in the stationary frame) is slow ...” [Lorentz1952].

[2] The Ehrenfest paradox similarly arises from interpreting length-contraction as a manifest physical effect.

[3] Alternatively, it is possible that SR prohibits extrinsically curved universes whose intrinsic metric nevertheless remains Minkowskian. However, there is nothing in SR that compels us to assume this at this time.

Update [20Sep2009]: I've emailed a précis of these deliberations to Dr. Mendel Sachs via his website.

References

[Kracklauer2002] Kracklauer, Kracklauer, "Twins: never the twain shall part", Proceedings: Physical Interpretations of Relativity Theory VIII, 2002, pp. 248-255.

[Lorentz1952] Lorentz et al., "The Principle of Relativity", Dover Publications, 1952.

[Sachs1971] Sachs, "A resolution of the clock paradox", Physics Today, vol. 24(9), 1971, pp. 23-29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3022927

[Schutz1985] Schutz, "A first course in general relativity", Cambridge University Press, 1985.

Anisotropic Wavefront in Special Relativity - Comment on Vankov's "On Controversies in Special Relativity"

2009-09-15T20:13:00.015-05:00

Prologue
I recently read Anatoli Andrei Vankov's paper "On Controversies in Special Relativity" [Van2006] with great interest. I've always been fascinated by discussions of paradoxes in Relativity (especially, the Ehrenfest Paradox), but I wasn't in the least aware that the Spherical Wave-front example of Einstein was controversial.

Vankov's Analysis
See Section 3 (Shape of light front, and constancy of the speed of light) of Vankov's paper [Van2006] for

Specifics on why the example is controversial.
An analysis of the physics underlying the example.
Subsequent interpretation towards the resolution of the controversy.

Specifically, the analysis concludes that the shape of an isotropic (spherical) wave-front in frame S' becomes an ellipsoid in frame S. I do not disagree with the analysis itself. However, I submit that the eventual interpretation is untenable. [There are a few typos in equations (11), (13), and (14). However, the typos don't affect the analysis perse; so I don't dwell on them here.]

Note that we start off with a spherical wave-front in frame S' which is a surface of constant t'. This surface is then parametrized using theta'. Subsequently, using the Lorentz transforms, this spherical surface is determined to be transformed into an ellipsoid in frame S. And the analysis is absolutely correct.

My Comments
However, at this point it is also asserted that an ellipsoid is exactly what is perceived by frame S. But, it must be realized that this ellipsoid surface is not a surface of constant t in frame S (because of relativity of simultaneity). [This is also evident in the analysis: The expression for the time coordinate in frame S is a function of theta/theta'.] As a result, the conclusion that the ellipsoid surface is perceived as-is in frame S, is, philosophically speaking, untenable: If frame S were to specify the shape of the wave-front, it would be based on a surface of constant t, and not based on a surface that corresponds to space-time events belonging to varying, or even arbitrary, t. Thus, the ellipsoid surface has no significance in frame S.

From a physical perspective, frame S would assert that the wave-front is spherical because frame S will make the shape determination at a specific time t which would give an obviously spherical wave-front (just as Einstein had originally remarked). Note that the space-time events that make up this spherical wave-front in frame S similarly carry no significance when transformed to frame S'.

Update [15Sep2009]: I've emailed a one-page write-up to Anatoli Vankov soliciting his comments.

References

[Van2006] Vankov, "On Controversies in Special Relativity", arXiv.org, 2006.

Bibliography of Indic Genetics (2001-2010)

2009-05-02T12:36:00.037-05:00

This is a list of (mostly open access) papers in my collection that pertains to the genetics of the Indian Subcontinent.

2001

[Agrawal2001] Agrawal et al, "Distribution of HLA Class II Antigens in Three North Indian Populations", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 1(4), pp. 283-291, 2001.

[Bamshad2001] Bamshad et al, "Genetic Evidence on the Origins of Indian Caste Populations", Genome Research, vol. 11, pp. 994-1004, 2001.
doi:10.1101/gr.GR-1733RR

[Chattopadhyay2001] Chattopadhyay et al, "Gene Diversity at Three Tetrameric STR Loci Among Eight Ethnic Populations of West Bengal and Manipur, India", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 1(4), 255-262, 2001.

[Maca-Meyer2001] Maca-Meyer et al, "Major genomic mitochondrial lineages delineate early human expansions", BMC Genetics, vol. 2:13, 2001.
doi:10.1186/1471-2156-2-13

[Majumder2001a] Majumder, "Indian Caste Origins: Genomic Insights and Future Outlook", Genome Research, vol. 11, pp. 931-932, Jun. 2001.
doi:10.1101/gr.192401

[Majumder2001b] Majumder, "Ethnic populations of India as seen from an evolutionary perspective", Journal of Biosciences, vol. 26(4), pp. 533-545, Nov. 2001.

[Mukherjee2001] Mukherjee et al, "High-resolution analysis of Y-chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from Central Asia and West Asia into India", Journal of Genetics, vol. 80(3), pp. 125-135, 2001.

[Quintana-Murci2001] Quintana-Murci et al, "Y-Chromosome Lineages Trace Diffusion of People and Languages in Southwestern Asia", American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 68, pp. 537-542, 2001.
doi:10.1086/318200

[Ramana2001] Ramana et al, "Y-chromosome SNP haplotypes suggest evidence of gene flow among caste, tribe, and the migrant Siddi populations of Andhra Pradesh, South India", European Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 9, pp. 695-700, 2001.

[Reddy2001] Reddy et al, "Population Substructure and Patterns of Quantitative Variation among the Gollas of Southern Andhra Pradesh, India", Human Biology, vol. 73(2), pp. 291-306, 2001.
PMID: 11446430

[Shankarkumar2001] Shankarkumar et al, "HLA Antigen Distribution in Maratha Community from Mumbai, Maharastra, India", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 1(3), pp. 173-177, 2001.

[Veerraju2001] Veerraju et al, "Insertion / Deletion DNA Polymorphisms in two South Indian Tribal Populations", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 1(2), pp. 129-132, 2001.

[Venkatramana2001] Venkatramana et al, "Apolipoprotein E Polymorphism Among the Indian Populations and its Comparison with Other Asian Populations", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 1(2), pp. 123-128, 2001.

2002

[Bhasin2002] Bhasin, Walter, "Genetics of Castes and Tribes of India: Serum Protein Polymorphisms–KM and GM Systems", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 2(2), pp. 119-138, 2002.

[Chattopadhyay2002] Chattopadhyay et al, "Genetic Affinity Among Eight Ethnic Populations of West Bengal and Manipur, India: A Study Based on Six Polymorphic Functional Loci (HLADQA1, LDLR, GYPA, HBGG, D7S8 and GC)", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 2(4), pp. 233-242, 2002.

[Das2002] Das et al, "Genetic Variation of Serum Proteins Among the Koch Sub-populations of West Bengal, India", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 2(4), pp. 255-260, 2002.

[Edwin2002] Edwin et al, "Mitochondrial DNA diversity among five tribal population of southern India", Current Science, vol. 83(2), pp. 158-162, 2002.
ISSN 0011-3891

[Kivisild2002] Kivisild et al, "The Emerging Limbs and Twigs of the East Asian mtDNA Tree", Molecular Biology and Evolution, vol. 19(10), pp. 1737-1751, 2002.
PMID: 12270900

[Qamar2002] Qamar et al, "Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in Pakistan", American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 70, pp. 1107-1124, 2002.
PMCID: PMC447589

[Rajalingam2002] Rajalingam et al, "Distinctive KIR and HLA diversity in a panel of north Indian Hindus", Immunogenetics, vol. 53, pp. 1009-1019, 2002.
doi:10.1007/s00251-001-0425-5

2003

[Basu2003] Basu et al, "Ethnic India: A Genomic View, With Special Reference to Peopling and Structure", Genome Research, vol. 13, pp. 2277-2290, 2003.
doi:10.1101/gr.1413403

[Chhaya2003] Chhaya, Shankarkumar, "HLA Antigen Distribution in Selected Gujarati Subcaste from Mumbai, Maharastra, India", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 3(3), pp. 135-138, 2003.

[Cordaux2003a] Cordaux et al, "Mitochondrial DNA analysis reveals diverse histories of tribal populations from India", European Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 11, pp. 253-264, 2003.
doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200949

[Cordaux2003b] Cordaux, Stoneking, "South Asia, the Andamanese, and the Genetic Evidence for an Early Human Dispersal out of Africa", American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 72, pp. 1586-1590, 2003.
doi:10.1086/375407

[Endicott2003a] Endicott et al, "The Genetic Origins of the Andaman Islanders", American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 72, pp. 178-184, 2003.
PMCID: PMC378623

[Endicott2003b] Endicott et al, "Reply to Cordaux and Stoneking [Cordaux2003b]", American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 72, pp. 1590-1593, 2003.

[Kashyap2003] Kashyap et al, "Molecular Relatedness of The Aboriginal Groups of Andaman and Nicobar Islands with Similar Ethnic Populations", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 3(1), pp. 5-11, 2003.

[Khan2003] Khan et al, "ApoB 3’HVR Polymorphism a Genetic Variation in Indian Subcontinent", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 3(3), pp. 139-145, 2003.

[Kivisild2003a] Kivisild et al, "The Genetics of Language and Farming Spread in India", Chapter 17 in "Examing the farming/language dispersal hypothesis", McDonald Institute Monographs, 2003.

[Kivisild2003b] Kivisild et al, "The Genetic Heritage of the Earliest Settlers Persists Both in Indian Tribal and Caste Populations", American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 72, pp. 313-332, 2003.
PMCID: PMC379225

[Kumar2003] Kumar, Reddy, "Status of Austro-Asiatic groups in the peopling of India - An exploratory study based on the available prehistoric, linguistic and biological evidence", Journal of Biosciences, vol. 28(4), pp. 507-522, 2003.

[Ranjan2003] Ranjan et al, "Genomic Diversity in North-East, India: Genetic Relationship Among Five Ethnic Populations From Manipur Based on VNTR Polymorphism", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 3(1), pp. 21-27, 2003.

[Shankarkumar2003] Shankarkumar et al, "HLA DRB1 and DQB1 Gene Diversity in Maratha Community from Mumbai India", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 3(1), pp. 39-43, 2003.

[Sidhu2003] Sidhu et al, "Study of Genetic Polymorphism at D21S11 and D21S215 Loci in the Jat Sikh Population of Punjab", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 3(1), pp. 45-50, 2003.

[Thangaraj2003] Thangaraj et al, "Genetic Affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a Vanishing Human Population", Current Biology, vol. 13, pp. 86-93, 2003.
doi: 10.1016/S0960982202013362

2004

[Babita2004] Babita, Usha, "HLA Antigen Distribution in Sikhs from Punjab, India", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 4(2), pp. 111-113, 2004.

[Baig2004] Baig et al, "Mitochondrial DNA Diversity in Tribal and Caste Groups of Maharashtra (India) and its Implication on Their Genetic Origins", Annals of Human Genetics, vol. 68, pp. 453-460, 2004.
doi: 10.1046/j.1529-8817.2004.00108.x

[Cordaux2004a] Cordaux et al, "Independent Origins of Indian Caste and Tribal Paternal Lineages", Current Biology, vol. 14, pp. 231-235, Feb. 2004.
doi:10.1016/j.cub.2004.01.024

[Cordaux2004b] Cordaux et al, "The Northeast Indian Passageway: A Barrier or Corridor for Human Migrations?", Molecular Biology and Evolution, vol. 21(8), pp. 1525-1533, May 2004.
doi:10.1093/molbev/msh151

[Das2004] Das et al, "Minimal Sharing of Y-Chromosome STR Haplotypes Among Five Endogamous Population Groups from Western and Southwestern India", Human Biology, vol. 76, no. 5, pp. 743-763, 2004.
doi:10.1353/hub.2005.0003

[Kankonkar2004] Kankonkar et al, "HLA Antigen Distribution in Selected Population Groups from Maharashtra", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 4(2), pp. 115-118, 2004.

[Khan2004] Khan et al, "Genetic variation of ApoB 3′ hypervariable region polymorphism among Brahmins of North India", Current Science, vol. 86(5), pp. 697-701, 2004.

[Lee2004] Lee et al, "Molecular evidence for absence of Y-linkage of the Hairy Ears trait", European Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 12, pp. 1077-1079, 2004.
doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201271

[Mansoor2004] Mansoor et al, "Investigation of the Greek ancestry of populations from northern Pakistan", Human Genetics, vol. 114, pp. 484-490, 2004.
doi:10.1007/s00439-004-1094-x

[Metspalu2004] Metspalu et al, "Most of the extant mtDNA boundaries in South and Southwest Asia were likely shaped during the initial settlement of Eurasia by anatomically modern humans", BMC Genetics, vol. 5:26, 2004.
doi:10.1186/1471-2156-5-26

[Palanichamy2004] Palanichamy et al, "Phylogeny of Mitochondrial DNA Macrohaplogroup N in India, Based on Complete Sequencing: Implications for the Peopling of South Asia", American Journal of Human Genetics, vol 75., pp. 966-978, 2004.

[Quintana-Murci2004] Quintana-Murci et al, "Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor", American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 74(5), pp. 827-845, 2004.

PMCID: PMC1181978

[Rajkumar2004] Rajkumar, Kashyap, "Genetic structure of four socio-culturally diversified caste populations of southwest India and their affinity with related Indian and global groups", BMC Genetics, vol. 5:23, 2004.
doi:10.1186/1471-2156-5-23

[Shankarkumar2004] Shankarkumar, "Diversity Among Selected Caste and Tribal Groups of Western India: Origin, HLA and Disease Associations", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 4(2), pp. 105-110, 2004.

[Sridharan2004] Sridharan, Shankarkumar, "HLA Antigens in Nadars a Native Dravidian Caste Group of Tamil Nadu, South India", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 4(2), pp. 119-124, 2004.

[Tandon2004] Tandon et al, "Genetic Affinity Between Two Ethnically Diverse Caste Groups of North India: A Study Based Upon 15 Microsatellite Loci", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 4(1), pp. 37-43, 2004.

[Vishwanathan2004] Vishwanathan et al, "Genetic structure and affinities among tribal populations of southern India: a study of 24 autosomal DNA markers", Annals of Human Genetics, vol. 68, pp. 128-138, 2004.
doi: 10.1046/j.1529-8817.2003.00083.x

[Wooding2004] Wooding et al, "Directional migration in the Hindu castes: inferences from mitochondrial, autosomal and Y-chromosomal data", Human Genetics, vol. 115, pp. 221-229, 2004.
doi:10.1007/s00439-004-1130-x

2005

[Agrawal2005] Agrawal et al, "YAP, signature of an African-Middle Eastern migration into Northern India", Current Science, vol. 88, no. 12, pp. 1977-1980, 2005.
ISSN 0011-3891

[Balgir2005] Balgir, "Detection of a Rare Blood Group “Bombay (Oh) Phenotype” Among the Kutia Kondh Primitive Tribe of Orissa, India", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 5(3), pp. 193-198, 2005.

[Kalaydjieva2005] Kalaydjieva et al, "A newly discovered founder population: the Roma/Gypsies", BioEssays, vol. 27.10, pp. 1084-1094, 2005.
doi:10.1002/bies.20287

[Kankonkar2005] Kankonkar, Shankarkumar, "HLA DRB1 Gene Study in Different Population Groups From Mumbai, Maharashtra, India", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 5(4), pp. 267-271, 2005.

[Metspalu2005] Metspalu, "Through the course of prehistory in India: tracing the mtDNA trail", Dissertation, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, 2005.
ISBN 9949–11–202–8

[Rajkumar2005] Rajkumar et al, "Phylogeny and antiquity of M macrohaplogroup inferred from complete mt DNA sequence of Indian specific lineages", BMC Evolutionary Biology, vol. 5:26, 2005.
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-5-26

[Ravindranath2005] Ravindranath et al, "Alu Insertion / Deletion Polymorphisms in Yadava Population of Andhra Pradesh, South India", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 5(3), pp. 223-224, 2005.

[Thangaraj2005] Thangaraj et al, "Reconstructing the Origin of Andaman Islanders", Science, vol. 308, page 996, 2005.
doi:10.1126/science.1109987

[Thomas2005] Thomas, Banerjee, "HLA-A allele frequency and haplotype distribution in the Dravidian tribal communities of South India", Indian Journal of Human Genetics, vol 11, issue 3, pp. 140-144, 2005.

2006

[Barnabas2006] Barnabas et al, "High-Resolution mtDNA Studies of the Indian Population: Implications for Palaeolithic Settlement of the Indian Subcontinent", Annals of Human Genetics, vol. 70, pp. 42-58, 2006.
doi: 10.1111/j.1529-8817.2005.00207.x

[Biswas2006] Biswas, Pawar, "Phylogenetic tests of distribution patterns in South Asia: towards an integrative approach", Journal of Biosciences, vol. 31(1), pp. 95-113, 2006.

[Carvalho-Silva2006] Carvalho-Silva et al, "Ancient Indian roots?", Journal of Biosciences, vol. 31(1), pp. 1-2, 2006.

[Debnath2006] Debnath, Chaudhuri, "Study of Genetic Relationships of Indian Gurkha Population on the Basis of HLA - A and B Loci Antigens", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 6(2), pp. 159-162, 2006.

[Endicott2006] Endicott et al, "Multiplexed SNP Typing of Ancient DNA Clarifies the Origin of Andaman mtDNA Haplogroups amongst South Asian Tribal Populations", PLoS ONE, vol. 1(1):e81, pp. 1-8, 2006.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000081

[Gutala2006] Gutala et al, "A shared Y-chromosomal heritage between Muslims and Hindus in India", Human Genetics, vol. 120, pp. 543-551, 2006.
doi:10.1007/s00439-006-0234-x

[Kashyap2006] Kashyap et al, "Genetic structure of Indian populations based on fifteen autosomal microsatellite loci", BMC Genetics, vol. 7:28, 2006.
doi:10.1186/1471-2156-7-28

[Palanichamy2006] Palanichamy et al, "Comment on 'Reconstructing the Origin of Andaman Islanders'", Science, vol. 311, page 470a, 2006.
doi:10.1126/science.1120176

[Rosenberg2006] Rosenberg et al, "Low Levels of Genetic Divergence across Geographically and Linguistically Diverse Populations from India", PLoS Genetics, vol. 2(12):e215, pp. 2052-2061, 2006.
doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.0020215

[Sahoo2006] Sahoo et al, "A prehistory of Indian Y chromosomes: Evaluating demic diffusion scenarios", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 103, no. 4, pp. 843-848, 2006.
doi: 10.1073/pnas.0507714103

[Sengupta2006] Sengupta et al, "Polarity and Temporality of High-Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists", The American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 78, pp. 202-221, 2006.

PMCID: PMC1380230

[Sun2006] Sun et al, "The Dazzling Array of Basal Branches in the mtDNA Macrohaplogroup M from India as Inferred from Complete Genomes", Molecular Biology and Evolution, vol. 23(3), pp. 683-690, 2006.
doi:10.1093/molbev/msj078

[Thangaraj2006a] Thangaraj et al, "Response to Comment on 'Reconstructing the Origin of Andaman Islanders'", Science, vol. 311, page 470b, Jan 2006.
doi:10.1126/science.1120670

[Thangaraj2006b] Thangaraj et al, "In situ origin of deep rooting lineages of mitochondrial Macrohaplogroup 'M' in India", BMC Genomics, vol. 7:151, Jun 2006.
doi:10.1186/1471-2164-7-151

[Thanseem2006] Thanseem et al, "Genetic affinities among the lower castes and tribal groups of India: inference from Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA", BMC Genetics, vol. 7:42, 2006.
doi:10.1186/1471-2156-7-42

2007

[Balgir2007] Balgir, "Identification of a rare blood group, “Bombay (Oh) phenotype,” in Bhuyan tribe of Northwestern Orissa, India", Indian Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 13(3), pp. 109-113, 2007.

[Bhasin2007] Bhasin, "Genetics of Castes and Tribes of India: Indian Population Milieu", Chapter 16 in "Anthropology Today: Trends, Scope and Applications", Anthropological Special Volume No. 3, pp. 167-208, 2007.

[Chaubey2007] Chaubey et al, "Peopling of South Asia: investigating the caste–tribe continuum in India", BioEssays, vol. 29(1), pp. 91-100, 2007.
doi: 10.1002/bies.20525

[Firasat2007] Firasat et al, "Y-chromosomal evidence for a limited Greek contribution to the Pathan population of Pakistan", European Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 15, pp. 121-126, 2007.
doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201726

[Gayden2007] Gayden et al, "The Himalayas as a Directional Barrier to Gene Flow", The American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 80, pp. 884-894, 2007.

PMCID: PMC1852741

[Kanthimathi2007] Kanthimathi et al, "A Genetic Structure of the Early Immigrants (Mukkalathor) of Tamil Nadu as Inferred From Autosomal Loci", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 7(2), pp. 167-173, 2007.

[Khan2007] Khan et al, "Genetic affinities between endogamous and inbreeding populations of Uttar Pradesh", BMC Genetics, vol. 8:12, 2007.
doi:10.1186/1471-2156-8-12

[Krithika2007a] Krithika et al, "Geographic Contiguity, Patterns of Gene Flow and Genetic Affinity among the Tribes of Arunachal Pradesh, India", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 7(3), pp. 267-276, 2007.

[Krithika2007b] Krithika et al, "Molecular Genetic Perspective of Indian Populations: A Y-Chromosome Scenario", Chapter 30 in "Anthropology Today: Trends, Scope and Applications", Anthropological Special Volume No. 3, pp. 385-392, 2007.

[Kumar2007] Kumar et al, "Y-chromosome evidence suggests a common paternal heritage of Austro-Asiatic populations", BMC Evolutionary Biology, vol. 7:47, Mar 2007.
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-7-47

[Reddy2007] Reddy et al, "Austro-Asiatic Tribes of Northeast India Provide Hitherto Missing Genetic Link between South and Southeast Asia", PLoS ONE, vol. 2(11): e1141, 2007.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001141

[Sharma2007] Sharma et al, "A novel subgroup Q5 of human Y-chromosomal haplogroup Q in India", BMC Evolutionary Biology, vol. 7:232, 2007.
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-7-232

[Trivedi2007] Trivedi et al, "High Resolution Phylogeographic Map of Y-Chromosomes Reveal the Genetic Signatures of Pleistocene Origin of Indian Populations", Chapter 31 in "Anthropology Today: Trends, Scope and Applications", Anthropologist Special Volume No. 3, pp. 393-414, 2007.

[Winters2007a] Winters, "Can parallel mutation and neutral genome selection explain Eastern African M1 consensus HVS-I motifs in Indian M haplogroups", Indian Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 13(3), pp. 93-96, 2007.
doi:10.4103/0971-6866.38982

[Winters2007b] Winters, "Did the Dravidian Speakers Originate in Africa?", BioEssays, vol. 29(5), pp. 497-498, 2007.

[Zerjal2007] Zerjal et al, "Y-chromosomal insights into the genetic impact of the caste system in India", Human Genetics, vol. 121, pp. 137-144, 2007.
doi:10.1007/s00439-006-0282-2

2008

[Badaruddoza2008] Badaruddoza et al, "Study of YAP Element among an Endogamous Human Isolate in Punjab", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 8(3), pp. 269-271, 2008.

[Barik2008] Barik et al, "Detailed mtDNA Genotypes Permit a Reassessment of the Settlement and Population Structure of the Andaman Islands", American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 136, pp. 19-27, 2008.
doi:10.1002/ajpa.20773

[Carvalho-Silva2008] Carvalho-Silva, Tyler-Smith, "The Grandest Genetic Experiment Ever Performed on Man? – A Y-Chromosomal Perspective on Genetic Variation in India", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 8(1-2), 2008.

[Chaubey2008a] Chaubey et al, "Language Shift by Indigenous Population: A Model Genetic Study in South Asia", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 8(1-2), pp. 41-50, May 2008.

[Chaubey2008b] Chaubey et al, "Phylogeography of mtDNA haplogroup R7 in the Indian peninsula", BMC Evolutionary Biology, vol. 8:227, Aug 2008.
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-8-227

[Heyer2008] Heyer, "The Indian genetic landscape and disease-related genes", Journal of Biosciences, vol. 33(5), pp. 631-633, 2008.
doi:

[Kumar2008a] Kumar et al, "Molecular Genetic Study on the Status of Transitional Groups of Central India: Cultural Diffusion or Demic Diffusion?", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 8(1-2), pp. 31-39, 2008.

[Kumar2008b] Kumar et al, "The earliest settlers' antiquity and evolutionary history of Indian populations: evidence from M2 mtDNA lineage", BMC Evolutionary Biology, vol. 8:230, 2008.
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-8-230

[Maji2008a] Maji et al, "Distribution of Mitochondrial DNA Macrohaplogroup N in India with Special Reference to Haplogroup R and its Sub-Haplogroup U", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 8(1-2), pp. 85-96, March 2008.

[Maji2008b] Maji, Vasulu, "Genetic Structure of an Isolated Sub-Tribe of the Adi People of Arunachal Pradesh State in Northeast India: Isonymy Analysis and Selective Neutrality of Surname Distribution in Adi Panggi", Journal of Genetic Genealogy, vol. 4(1), pp. 1-11, Spring 2008.

[Thangaraj2008] Thangaraj et al, "Maternal Footprints of Southeast Asians in North India", Human Heredity, vol. 66(1), pp. 1-9, 2008.
doi:10.1159/000114160

[Tripathi2008] Tripathi et al, "Role of Alu Element in Detecting Population Diversity", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 8(1-2), pp. 61-74, 2008.

[Tripathy2008] Tripathy et al, "Trends in Molecular Anthropological Studies in India", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 8(1-2), pp. 1-20, 2008.

[Trivedi2008] Trivedi et al, "Genetic Imprints of Pleistocene Origin of Indian Populations: A Comprehensive Phylogeographic Sketch of Indian Y-Chromosomes", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 8(1-2), pp. 97-118, 2008.

[Veerraju2008] Veerraju et al, "Insertion/Deletion Polymorphisms in Indian Tribal Populations", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 8(1-2), pp. 75-83, 2008.

[Watkins2008] Watkins et al, "Genetic variation in South Indian castes: evidence from Y-chromosome, mitochondrial, and autosomal polymorphisms", BMC Genetics, vol. 9:86, 2008.
doi:10.1186/1471-2156-9-86

[Winters2008a] Winters, "Origin and Spread of Dravidian Speakers", International Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 8(4), pp. 325-329, 2008.

[Winters2008b] Winters, "High Levels of Genetic Divergence across Indian Populations", PLoS Genetics, Reader Response to Rosenberg et al ("Low Levels of Genetic Divergence across Linguistically Diverse Populations from India") [Rosenberg2006], 2008.

2009

[Chakravarti2009] Chakravarti, "Human Genetics: Tracing India's invisible threads", Nature, vol. 461, pp. 487-488, 2009.
doi:10.1038/461487a

[Chandrasekar2009] Chandrasekar et al, "Updating Phylogeny of Mitochondrial DNA Macrohaplogroup M in India: Dispersal of Modern Human in South Asian Corridor", PLoS ONE, vol. 4(10):e7447, 2009.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007447

[Fornarino2009] Fornarino et al, "Mitochondrial and Y-chromosome diversity of the Tharus (Nepal): a reservoir of genetic variation", BMC Evolutionary Biology, vol. 9:154, 2009.
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-9-154

[Kumar2009] Kumar et al, "Reconstructing Indian-Australian phylogenetic link", BMC Evolutionary Biology, vol. 9:173, 2009.
doi:10.1186/1471-2148-9-173

[Maji2009] Maji et al, "Phylogeographic distribution of mitochondrial DNA macrohaplogroup M in India", Journal of Genetics, vol. 88(1), pp. 127-139, 2009.
doi:10.1007/s12041-009-0020-3

[Moiz2009] Moiz et al, "Population Study of 1311 C/T polymorphism of Glucose 6 Phosphate Dehydrogenase gene in Pakistan - an analysis of 715 X-chromosomes", BMC Genetics, vol. 10:41, 2009.
doi:10.1186/1471-2156-10-41

[Reich2009] Reich et al, "Reconstructing Indian population history", Nature, vol. 461, pp. 489-495, 2009.
doi:10.1038/nature08365

[Sharma2009] Sharma et al, "The Indian origin of paternal haplogroup R1a1* substantiates the autochthonous origin of Brahmins and the caste system", Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 54, pp. 47–55, 2009.
doi:10.1038/jhg.2008.2

[Thangaraj2009] Thangaraj et al, "Deep Rooting In-Situ Expansion of mtDNA Haplogroup R8 in South Asia", PloS ONE, vol. 4(8):e6545, 2009.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006545

[Zhao2009] Zhao et al, "Presence of three different paternal lineages among North Indians: A study of 560 Y chromosomes", Annals of Human Biology, vol. 36(1), pp. 46-59, 2009.
doi:10.1080/03014460802558522

Bibliography of Indic Genetics (2000 and prior)

2009-04-29T20:17:00.042-05:00

This is a list of (mostly open access) papers in my collection that pertains to the genetics of the Indian Subcontinent.

Pre-1999

[Sarkar1961] Sarkar et al, "A Contribution to the Genetics of Hypertrichosis of the Ear Rims", American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 13(2), pp. 214-223, 1961.

[Dronamraju1962] Dronamraju, Haldane, "Inheritance of Hairy Pinnae", American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 14(1), pp. 102-103, 1962.

[Stern1964] Stern et al, "New Data on the Problem of Y-Linkage of Hairy Pinnae", American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 16(4), pp. 455-471, 1964.

[Chattopadhyay1966] Chattopadhyay, "Inheritance of hairy pinna of the ear", Journal of Genetics, vol. 59(3), pp. 329-334, 1966.

[Karve1968] Karve et al, "A Biological Comparison of Eight Endogamous Groups of the Same Rank [and Comments and Replies]", Current Anthropology, vol. 9(2/3) pp. 109-124, 1968.

[Brega1986] Brega et al, "Genetic Studies on the Tharu Population of Nepal: Restriction Endonuclease Polymorphisms of Mitochondrial DNA", American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 39, pp. 502-512, 1986.

[Pitchappan1988] Pitchappan, "Founder effects explain the distribution of the HLA A1-B17 but not the absence of the A1-B8 haplotypes in India", Journal of Genetics, vol. 67(2), pp. 101-111, 1988.

[Ballinger1992] Ballinger et al, "Southeast Asian Mitochondrial DNA Analysis Reveals Genetic Continuity of Ancient Mongoloid Migrations", Genetics, vol. 130, pp. 139-152, 1992.

[Passarino1993] Passarino et al, "COII/tRNA(Lys) Intergenic 9-bp Deletion and Other mtDNA Markers Clearly Reveal That the Tharus (Southern Nepal) Have Oriental Affinities", American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 53, pp. 609-618, 1993.

[Melton1995] Melton et al, "Polynesian Genetic Affinities with Southeast Asian Populations as Identified by mtDNA Analysis", American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 57, pp. 403-414, 1995.

[Mountain1995] Mountain et al, "Demographic History of India and mtDNA-Sequence Diversity", American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 56, pp. 979-992, 1995.

[Passarino1996] Passarino et al, "Pre-Caucasoid and Caucasoid Genetic Features of the Indian Population, Revealed by mtDNA Polymorphisms", American Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 59, pp. 927-934, 1996.

[Bamshad1998] Bamshad et al, "Female gene flow stratifies Hindu castes", Nature, vol. 395, pp. 651-652, 1998.

1999

[Bhattacharyya1999] Bhattacharyya et al, "Negligible Male Gene Flow Across Ethnic Boundaries in India, Revealed by Analysis of Y-Chromosomal DNA Polymorphisms", Genome Research, vol. 9, pp. 711-719, 1999.
doi:10.1101/gr.9.8.711

[Kivisild1999a] Kivisild et al, "The Place of the Indian mtDNA Variants in the Global Network of Maternal Lineages and the Peopling of the Old World", in "Genome Diversity: Applications in Human Population Genetics", Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, pp. 135-152, 1999.

[Kivisild1999b] Kivisild et al, "Deep common ancestry of Indian and western-Eurasian mitochondrial DNA lineages", Current Biology, vol. 9, pp. 1331-1334, Nov. 1999.

[Majumder1999] Majumder et al, "Human-specific insertion/deletion polymorphisms in Indian populations and their possible evolutionary implications", European Journal of Human Genetics, vol. 7, pp. 435-446, 1999.

[Watkins1999] Watkins et al, "Multiple Origins of the mtDNA 9-bp Deletion in Populations of South India", American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 109, pp. 147-158, 1999.

2000

[Kivisild2000a] Kivisild et al, "An Indian Ancestry: a Key for Understanding Human Diversity in Europe and Beyond", Chapter 31 in "Archaeogenetics: DNA and the population prehistory of Europe", Eds. Colin Renfrew & Katie Boyle, McDonald Institute Monographs, 2000.
ISBN: 1-902937-08-2
ISSN: 1363-1349

[Kivisild2000b] Kivisild, "The origins of southern and western Eurasian populations: an mtDNA study", Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Evolutionary Biology, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Tartu University, Estonia, May 2000.

[Roychoudhury2000] Roychoudhury et al, "Fundamental genomic unity of ethnic India is revealed by analysis of mitochondrial DNA", Current Science, vol. 79(9), pp. 1182-1192, 2000.

[Su2000] Su et al, "Y chromosome haplotypes reveal prehistorical migrations to the Himalayas", Human Genetics, vol. 107, pp. 582-590, 2000.
doi:10.1007/s004390000406

An Acoustic Investigation into Ancient Indian Musical Tuning(s) - II

2009-02-27T22:13:00.017-06:00

Some time ago I'd pondered the question of why the ancient Indian musical octave was considered to be a 22-step (22-शृति) interval [Kam2009a]. In my investigation I had followed primarily two cardinal principles:

(1) Ancient Indian musicians must have tuned their वीणाs (bow-harps) acoustically, using their ears as a guide (and without using any 'cyclic' principles). Hence their scales must have been largely reflective of our contemporary understanding of acoustic/harmonic principles.

(2) Only those processes (e.g. मूर्छनs) that were described by मुनि भरत could be used for further investigation.

Thus, I had postulated a 'acoustic natural' scale as a plausible model of the षड्ज-ग्राम and inferred that its मूर्छनs (modulations) automatically generated a 22-शृति gamut.

The Rise of Music in the Ancient World

This week I happened to stumble across Curt Sachs' "The Rise of Music in the Ancient World" [Sac1943] which has a section dealing with ancient Indian music. I was pleasantly surprised to find that Sachs had arrived at pretty much the same formulation as mine following an almost identical thought process. This post documents Sachs' major results and also indicates where they deviate from mine.

The following are verbatim quotes from Sachs' book (pages 166-167):

There has been much pondering over the puzzling problem of why and how the Hindus came to a division into twenty-two parts.
...
Actually, the srutis were not units but, on the contrary, of three different sizes necessitated by the very nature of Indian scales.
...
India's standard scales depended on the divisive principle; they had major whole tones of 204, minor whole tones of 182, and semitones of 112 Cents.
...
The incessant readaptation of the octave required facilities for changing semitones or major whole tones into minor whole tones, of adding and cutting off adequate portions.
All permutations in these 'give-and-take' were feasible with only three elements: (a) twenty-two Cents or a 'comma,' the difference between the major and the minor whole tone (204-182 Cents); (b) seventy Cents, the difference between the minor whole tone and the semitone; (c) ninety Cents , the difference between the semitone and the comma.
...
The give-and-take operation also indicates the exact sequence of the twenty-two shrutis:

D 112 70 E 22 90 F 22 70 22 90 G 22 90 70 22 A 90 22 70 B 22 90 C 22 70 112 D

The first and last steps of 112 Cents, minimum steps with which any model scale begins and ends, are not split in this operation.

Comparison with Sachs' Work

Similarities

The first similarity is that both Sachs and I identify the following three intervals as 1-शृति sized 'elements':

81:80 (Comma of Didymus, denoted c): ~021.51c
25:24 (Small Semitone, denoted s): ~070.67c
256:243 (Pythagorean Limma, denoted L): ~090.22c

The second similarity is that both Sachs and I partition the octave such that the notes at the 1st and the 21st शृति positions are indeterminate.

Differences

First of, Sachs doesn't clearly motivate how he arrived at the three different 'elements'. He states this as a 'matter-of-fact' with no caveats. (I am led to think that these were taken from Fox Strangways' earlier work [Str1914].)

Secondly, I identify the following interval as 0-शृति sized:

2048:2025 (Diaschisma, denoted d): ~019.55c

But there is no reference to this interval in Sachs' work (where it concerns ancient Indian music).

Finally, there is a slight difference in the exact partitioning of the octave. If the 16:15 semitone is denoted S, then Sachs' octave is partitioned into the interval sequence

"S s c L c s c L c L s c L c s c L c s S"

whereas my octave is partitioned into the (palindromic) interval sequence

"S s c L c s c L c s d s c L c s c L c s S"

Note that both sequences are identical in great measure. However, the interval between the 4/3 & 3/2 notes is partitioned by Sachs into the sequence "c L s c" with no obvious justification of why this particular order should be preferred over an alternative sequence, like "c s L c", for example, or indeed over any other combination of those four 'elements'.

On the other hand, my partitioning yields the (palindromic) sequence "c s d s c" between the same two notes. Now, s*d=L. Thus, by assimilating the d either into the preceding or the subsequent s, two different interval sequences can be arrived at: "c L s c" and "c s L c". Both are valid within the context of my model and there is no obvious reason to choose one over the other. It is possible that "c L s c" is favoured in ascending scales, while "c s L c" in descending scales. In any case, I've already argued that both these sequences may have been treated as 'equivalent' for all practical purposes since the d is 0-शृति sized interval (i.e. smaller than the प्रमाण शृति) [Kam2009a].

Similar Work By Other Authors

Fox Strangways too had followed a process similar to mine [Str1914]. He too had arrived at 20 notes in the octave; and in his scheme, 45/32 & 64/45 were two possibilities for the 11-शृति position. However, he had (artificially) introduced notes at the 1st & 21st शृतिs "by analogy" [Str1914, pg 114] even though those two शृतिs were never used in any जाती during मुनि भरत's time.

Final Thoughts

In retrospect, it is no surprise that multiple authors have arrived at conclusions similar to mine. Given the principle of a 'natural' scale (based on an overtone series) there are only a limited number of ways to generate a full gamut based on modulations of the parent scale.

References

[Kam2009a] Roshan Kamath, "An Acoustic Investigation into Ancient Indian Musical Tuning(s)", http://roshbaby.blogspot.com/2009/02/acoustic-investigation-into-ancient.html, Feb 2009.

[Sac1943] Curt Sachs, "The Rise of Music in the Ancient World", W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1943.

[Str1914] A. H. Fox Strangways, "The Music of Hindostan", Oxford University Press, 1914.

An Acoustic Investigation into Ancient Indian Musical Tuning(s)

2009-02-08T12:25:00.044-06:00

Ancient Indian music theory was based primarily on the tuning of the (ancient) वीणा, a Bow-Harp [Bha1984]. The topic of tuning of the वीणा leads to much discussion and disagreement in musicological circles even today. Based on the information which has reached us via Greek physicists who 'reverse-engineered' Greek tuning from Greek musical scales, and presumably Greek music being inherited from an Eastern musical practice [Dan1995, Day1891], it is quite possible that Indian tunings were also founded on acoustic/harmonic principles.

मुनि भरत's treatise, the नाट्यशास्त्र, which became the basis for subsequent musicological works, identifies three different interval sizes in the two parent tunings (षड्ज-ग्राम and मध्यम-ग्राम) and assigns them certain weights or शृति values [Jai1975]. More importantly, the scales of मुनि भरत's time were heptatonic (i.e. employing 7 स्वरs) and based on मूर्छनs (modes) of a given ग्राम (parent tuning). This is central to what follows.

(Note: It is more correct to translate ग्राम as 'pitch collection'; however, the phrase 'parent tuning' is used in this article since tuning is the topic under discussion.)

The purpose of this article is to start with an acoustically determined scale, and then see if the basis of the नाट्यशास्त्र cannot be recovered using our current understanding of the state-of-the-art in those days. Primarily, it seeks to understand why the ancient Indian octave was presumably divided into 22 steps (शृतिs). This article is also motivated somewhat by earlier work on contemporary Indian scales which ended up with a non-coarse grouping of 22 equivalence note classes [Kam2008]. However, it is in no way a defense of the claim that contemporary Indian intonation too is based upon a set of 22 fixed शृतिs.

An 'Acoustic Natural' Scale for the षड्ज-ग्राम

A 'natural' scale based on acoustic principles and which satisfies the necessary conditions of the नाट्यशास्त्र would be:

1/1, 9/8, 5/4, 4/3, 3/2, 27/16, 15/8, 2/1

This scale employs three different intervals; namely, 9:8 (T), 10:9 (t), and 16:15 (S) much in the line of the scales documented by मुनि भरत. Specifically, the scale above is intended to represent the tuning known as षड्ज-ग्राम which was composed of two tetrachords internally bounded by the Just Fourth (4/3) and the Perfect Fifth (3/2). Note however that in NO way does this imply that मुनि भरत's षड्ज ग्राम was exactly the scale mentioned above; neither is it the point of this article.

The Sixth in the षड्ज-ग्राम is Pythagorean (27/16) and NOT the 'Just' Sixth (5/3) since tetrachordal symmetry was observed in the tuning of the षड्ज-ग्राम्. The scale that used the 'Just' Sixth instead was known as the मध्यम-ग्राम. More about it below.

The षड्ज-ग्राम can be represented in terms of intervallic values as "T t S T T t S".

(Open Question: As the वीणा was a bow-harp, it is hard to defend the stand that the वीणा was tuned to an 'acoustically natural' scale. Historically, instruments like these were tuned by a 'cyclic' process of ascending/descending fifths/fourths which would, without tempering, lead to only two interval sizes, not three as required by मुनि भरत's description. Clearly there's a discrepancy somewhere; but not if one allows the possibility that ancient Indian musicians may have tuned their harps by exploiting 'overtonal consonance' instead of following a 'cyclic' process.)

The मूर्छनs (Modes) of the षड्ज-ग्राम

By rooting the above 'Acoustic Natural' षड्ज-ग्राम on each note, different मूर्छन (modes) of the same basic scale are obtained.

Mode of the First

This is "T t S T T t S" and yields 1/1, 9/8, 5/4, 4/3, 3/2, 27/16, 15/8, 2/1
This mode was also a जाती named षड्जी.

Mode of the Second

This is "t S T T t S T" and yields 1/1, 10/9, 32/27, 4/3, 3/2, 5/3, 16/9, 2/1
This mode was also a जाती named अर्षभी.

Mode of the Third

This is "S T T t S T t" and yields 1/1, 16/15, 6/5, 27/20, 3/2, 8/5, 9/5, 2/1

Mode of the Fourth

This is "T T t S T t S" and yields 1/1, 9/8, 81/64, 45/32, 3/2, 27/16, 15/8, 2/1

Mode of the Fifth

This is "T t S T t S T" and yields 1/1, 9/8, 5/4, 4/3, 3/2, 5/3, 16/9, 2/1

Mode of the Sixth

This is "t S T t S T T" and yields 1/1, 10/9, 32/27, 4/3, 40/27, 128/81, 16/9, 2/1
This mode was also a जाती named धैवती.

Mode of the Seventh

This is "S T t S T T t" and yields 1/1, 16/15, 6/5, 4/3, 64/45, 8/5, 9/5, 2/1
This mode was also a जाती named निषादी.

The Modal Gamut

Collect the individual notes that result from the above मूर्छनs and the following gamut results. The notes of the (default) षड्ज-ग्राम are indicated with bold letters.

1/1, 16/15, 10/9, 9/8, 32/27, 6/5, 5/4, 81/64, 4/3, 27/20, 45/32, 64/45, 40/27, 3/2, 128/81, 8/5, 5/3, 27/16, 16/9, 9/5, 15/8, 2/1.

The S (16:15) interval

The S interval between the 5/4 and 4/3 notes is observed to be 'split' into two sub-intervals by the introduction of the 81/64 note. Hence, one is inclined to consider the S as a 2-step interval.

The t (10:9) interval

The t interval between the 9/8 and 5/4 notes is observed to be 'split' into three sub-intervals by the introduction of 32/27 and 6/5 notes. This is also true for the t interval between the 27/16 and 15/8 notes. Thus, the t may be considered as a 3-step interval.

The T (9:8) interval

The T interval between the 1/1 and 9/8 notes is 'split' into three sub-intervals by the 16/15 and 10/9 notes. However, since the S (16:15) is already determined to be a 2-step interval or since the t (10:9) is already determined to be a 3-step interval, this makes the T a 4-step interval. An identical reasoning applies to the T interval between the 3/2 and 27/16 notes.

What about the T between the 4/3 and 3/2 notes?

At first glance this interval seems to be split into five sub-intervals. However, this shall be addressed later below once we assign 'weights' (शृतिs) to each note in the complete gamut.

शृति values for each note in the gamut

'Weights' can be assigned to each note in the gamut by adding up the weights (i.e. step-sizes) of the individual intervals that make up the note. For e.g., the 5/4 composed of a T and t shall get assigned a weight of 4+3=7.

These weights are termed शृतिs following मुनि भरत's terminology.

00: 1/1
01: -/-
02: 16/15
03: 10/9
04: 9/8
05: 32/27
06: 6/5
07: 5/4
08: 81/64
09: 4/3
10: 27/20
11: 45/32
11: 64/45
12: 40/27
13: 3/2
14: 128/81
15: 8/5
16: 5/3
17: 27/16
18: 16/9
19: 9/5
20: 15/8
21: -/-
22: 2/1

(Note the conspicuous absence of notes at शृति positions 1 and 21. This may be the underlying reason why none of the जातीs defined by मुनि भरत employed notes at those positions. Also note that both the 45/32 and 64/45 notes end up with the same शृति value 11.)

The first observation is that we end up with a 22 शृति octave. मुनि भरत termed the interval between the 16th and 17th शृति positions as the प्रमाण शृति. This comes out to be the Comma of Didymus (81:80, ~21.51c). It is thought that मुनि भरत considered this as the smallest musically relevant interval, and any interval smaller that this could very easily have been identified with the unison (1:1). Now, the various intervallic distances in the above gamut are:

2048:2025 (Diaschisma): ~019.55c, शृति value 0(?).
81:80 (Comma of Didymus): ~021.51c, शृति value 1.
25:24 (Small Semitone): ~070.67c, शृति value 1.
256:243 (Pythagorean Limma): ~090.22c, शृति value 1.
16:15 (Just Semitone): ~111.73c, शृति value 2.

The only interval smaller than the Comma of Didymus is the Diaschisma which occurs exactly once in the gamut as the intervallic distance between the 45/32 and 64/45 notes. Thus, it is possible that the 45/32 and 64/45 notes were considered to be identical given the state of measurement and accuracy that must have been available to मुनि भरत. This is also obliquely reflected in the same शृति value that gets assigned to both notes. This in itself may have been sufficient justification for मुनि भरत to identify those two notes. On the other hand, the 45/32 note did not occur in any जाती of the षड्ज-ग्राम while the 64/45 note did not occur in any जाती of the मध्यम-ग्राम (see below) so it is conceivable that this confusion never arose.

Note that three different intervals (81:80, 25:24, and 256:243) are considered to be a 1-शृति interval.

Back to the T between the 4/3 and 3/2 notes

If the 45/32 and 64/45 notes truly get identified with each other, it leaves 4 sub-intervals between the 4/3 and 3/2 notes. Even without this identification, we have only 13-9=4 शृति values between the 4/3 and 3/2 notes anyway; and both the 45/32 and 64/45 notes occupy the same शृति position. Thus, the T interval between the 4/3 and 3/2 notes too can be argued to be a 4-step interval consistent with its step-size in other positions.

The मूर्छनs (Modes) of the मध्यम-ग्राम

A complementary tuning, the मध्यम-ग्राम, was also in vogue during मुनि भरत's time. The primary difference between the two tunings was that the Sixth in the मध्यम-ग्राम was 'Just' (5/3) compared to the Pythagorean (27/16) of the षड्ज-ग्राम.

1/1, 9/8, 5/4, 4/3, 3/2, 5/3, 15/8, 2/1

In terms of intervallic values, this scale can be represented as "T t S T t T S". Following the same procedure as done above for the षड्ज-ग्राम and collecting the various notes yields a subset of the gamut that has already been determined.

1/1, 16/15, 10/9, 9/8, 32/27, 6/5, 5/4, 4/3, 27/20, 45/32, 64/45, 40/27, 3/2, 8/5, 5/3, 27/16, 16/9, 9/5, 15/8, 2/1.

No new notes are 'discovered'.

As an aside, of the seven modes of the मध्यम-ग्राम, the following three were also जातीs in use:

गाँधारी (mode of the Third) - This is "S T t T S T t" and yields 1/1, 16/15, 6/5, 4/3, 3/2, 8/5, 9/5, 2/1.

मध्यम (mode of the Fourth) - This is "T t T S T t S" and yields 1/1, 9/8, 5/4, 45/32, 3/2, 27/16, 15/8, 2/1.

पंचमी (mode of the Fifth) - This is "t T S T t S T" and yields 1/1, 10/9, 5/4, 4/3, 3/2, 5/3, 16/9, 2/1.

Conclusions

An octave with 22 शृति divisions naturally arises from the modulations of an 'acoustically natural' scale. However, these 22 शृतिs provide only 20 notes since the notes at the 1 & 21 positions are indeterminate. Inspite of the 22 शृतिs, it must not be forgotten that (ancient) Indian music itself was based only on 7 स्वरs (notes). Thus, the 22 शृतिs that arise from the modes of the two ग्रामs are of theoretical interest only and serve no practical purpose otherwise. However, a knowledge of these शृतिs may be handy in comprehending the subsequent evolution of Indian music.

References

[Bha1984] Pt. Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande, "Music Systems in India: A Comparative Study of Some of the Leading Music Systems of the 15th, 16th, 17th, & 18th Centuries", South Asia Books, 1984.

[Dan1995] Alain Danielou, "Music and the Power of Sound: The Influence of Tuning and Interval on Consciousness", Inner Traditions International, 1995.

[Day1891] ^^ ... the historian Strabo says that among the Greeks those who regard all Asia as far as India as a country sacred to Dionysius, "attribute to that country the invention of nearly all the science of music."^^, Capt. Charles Russell Day, "The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India and the Deccan", Novello, Ewer & Co., 1891, page 19.

[Jai1975] Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy, "An Interpretation of the 22 Srutis", Asian Music, Vol. 6, No. 1/2 (Perspectives on Asian Music: Essays in Honor of Dr. Laurence E. R. Picken), 1975, pp. 38-59.

[Kam2008] Roshan Kamath, "A Model for Implied Intonations in Classical हिन्दूस्तानी (Hindustani) Music", http://roshbaby.blogspot.com/2008/07/model-for-implied-intonations-in.html, 2008.

Relativity of Simultaneity - Bad Explanations on the Web

2008-12-23T15:09:00.042-06:00

A common example used to demonstrate the Relativity of Simultaneity goes like this, more or less:

A train of length D is passing by a platform of length D. An observer P stands in the middle of the platform, and there's another observer T who sits in the middle of the train. P notices that the front end of the train coincides with the front edge of the platform AT THE SAME TIME as when the rear end of the train coincides with the rear edge of the platform. The two 'coincidence events' are thus simultaneous in P's frame of reference.

The question is, does T agree that both 'coincidence events' are simultaneous in T's frame of reference? (It is implicitly assumed that this question is posed in P's frame of reference and that both reference frames are inertial.)

The correct answer in Special Relativity is "No".

Call the front coincidence event F and the rear coincidence event R. Then, according to T, F happens before R. The events are NOT simultaneous in T's frame of reference even though they are simultaneous in P's frame of reference.

The Bad Explanation

Often times, the bad explanation for this is an incomplete version of a correct explanation provided by Einstein himself [Ein1924]. The bad explanation goes as follows:

Because P is in the centre of the platform, the light from both 'coincidence events' reaches her at the same time. Hence, P considers both events as simultaneous. But, as T is moving towards F, light from F reaches T sooner than does light from R. Hence, T concludes that the event at F happened before the one at R.

This is Wrong on Many Levels

Whereas the explanation provided by Einstein himself [Ein1924] appears correct in all respects (and I'll talk about it below), by skipping some tiny, but important, details the bad explanation is totally out-of-whack.

Apparent Time vs. Real Time

The fact that light from both ends reaches the observer P at the same time is immaterial to the notion of simultaneity.

Would P's definition of simultaneous change if we had placed her at one edge, say the front edge, of the platform? Going by the explanation given above, P would then say that F happened before R because light from R takes some time (D/c) to reach her at F. However, the correct thing for P to do (whether in Relativity or in Newtonian physics) is to compute the real time at which R occurred based on her knowledge of

The distance between R and her; and
The time on her clock when the light from R reached her.

If P does this, she'll recognize that F and R did happen at the same time in her frame of reference regardless of her exact position.

In fact, all discussions use the real time of the event as measured in a frame of reference and NOT the apparent time of the event (i.e. when light from the event reaches the observer). This point, which is frequently glossed over, is true whether we're talking about Special Relativity or Newtonian physics.

Où vous êtes, Relativité Spéciale?

How many results from Special Relativity are used in the bad explanation above?

Absolutely NONE!

The bad explanation requires no knowledge of Special relativity at all. A Newtonian Physicist would as easily 'accept' the explanation as any layman would. A Newtonian physicist would additionally point out the need to compute the real time of both events in T's frame. She would then demonstrate that both the events were simultaneous in T's frame of reference too! (Prove this!) "Galilean Relativity is thus NOT violated; simultaneity is indeed absolute in all inertial frames. Phew!"

(Indeed, how can one hope to explain a Special Relativistic phenomenon using concepts from Newtonian mechanics? If that were possible, the Relativity of Simultaneity would have been appreciated decades before Einstein arrived on the scene.)

The Correct Explanation using Special Relativity

There are many ways to correctly explain the Relativity of Simultaneity in this particular example. Einstein himself provided one which employs the central postulate of Special Relativity (i.e. the speed of light in vacuum is the same in all inertial frames) [Ein1924]. In what follows, I employ the result of Length Contraction from Special Relativity.

We have to consider the events from T's perspective to understand what happens in her frame.

Let L denote the Lorentz factor between the two frames. Thus, if the train was moving with a velocity v as measured in P's frame, then

L = (1 - v^2/c^2)^(-1/2) > 1

Since the length of the moving train is D in P's frame, the (rest) length of the train in T's frame is LD.
Since the (rest) length of the stationary platform is D in P's frame, the length of the platform in T's frame is D/L.
In other words, the train is longer than the platform by a factor of L^2 (> 1) as measured in T's frame. (The actual factor by which it is longer is completely immaterial in what follows. I've run through this just to reinforce the fact that in T's frame of reference the platform is shorter than the train.)

From T's perspective, when the front end of the train coincides with the front edge of the platform (event F), the rear end of the train is NOT coincident with the rear edge of the platform. See position 1 in the figure below.

Some time later, T coincides with P who is standing in the middle of the platform. At this point neither ends of the train are coincident what the edges of the platform. However, this is exactly when P perceives both events F and R. See position 2.

Some more time later, the rear end of the train coincides with the rear edge of the platform (event R). At this point, the front end of the train is obviously NOT coincident with the front edge of the platform. See position 3.

Thus, T's perspective on these events is completely different from P's perspective. The events are not simultaneous, and in fact the ordering of the events in T's frame of reference is as presented above.

This is basically Relativity of Simultaneity.

Einstein's Original Explanation

The basic statement of Einstein's original thought-experiment is somewhat different, but only in the details [Ein1924]. The resolution proceeds as follows:

Because P is in the middle of the platform, light from both 'coincidence events' reaches her at the same time. P knows she's equidistant from both edges of the platform so light from both edges should take the same time to reach her. Thus, she deduces that both F and R were simultaneous.

Now, as seen by P, T is moving towards F. So, in P's frame of reference, light from F reaches T before the light from R does. (Now Einstein implicitly assumes that this order of events must be true even in T's frame of reference. Why?) But, T knows she's in the centre of the train. So light from both ends of the train should take the same time to reach her as light travels with a constant speed in her frame too. (Einstein fails to clarify this specific point in his explication). But, as the light from F reached her first, she concludes that F happened before R.

The numbers can be crunched to see whether the observations in P's frame actually transform correctly to those in T's frame using Einstein's interpretation. As one would expect, they do. Details are in the accompanying figure.

In Closing

I believe that the curious way in which the problem is formulated leaves significant scope for confusion. Einstein, ostensibly, chose the basic structure of the problem in this manner (i.e. with both observers in the 'middle') to simplify the overall explanation and provide an intuitive feeling for Special Relativity. However, this leads to the situation where the order in which light from the two events reaches the observers is identical to the order in which their respective reference frames place the events. It is very easy for lay students of Special Relativity to lose sight of the fact that the order in which light reaches an observer is inconsequential in defining simultaneity (or general ordering between events). So, one might leave with the impression that light reaching one's eyes is the only thing that matters.

The example used in Wikipedia to demonstrate the Relativity of Simultaneity is definitely better in my opinion.

References

[Ein1924] Albert Einstein (Tr. Robert W. Lawson), "Relativity - The Special and General Theory", Methuen & Co., Ltd., 1924.

The Fundamental Theorem of Intervallic Atoms

2008-09-14T18:55:00.010-05:00

This is a side-bar to A Model for Implied Intonations in Classical हिन्दूस्तानी (Hindustani) Music which contains much of the background necessary to understand what follows.

Notation

We define compound intervals as those intervals which can be 'factored' into a non-empty set of intervallic atoms. The Unison (1:1) serves as an identity element and is excluded from this definition because it can be trivially represented as an empty set of atomic factors.

A convenient way of representing a compound interval in terms of its constituent atoms is to use the exponent (^) notation to indicate the number of times each atom occurs in the factoring of that interval. For instance, the Just Fourth {T, S, s, S} may be written {T^1, S^2, s^1}.

An alternative method is to represent the intervals as points in a 3-dimensional space [T, S, s] for which the origin [0, 0, 0] is the Unison. The Just Fourth would be [1, 2, 1]. Juxtaposition of intervals then becomes addition in the [T, S, s] space.

Representation Lemma

An arbitrary repeated sequence of a given intervallic atom cannot be represented in terms of the other atoms.
{T^p} ≠ {S^q , s^r } ∀ p, q, r ≥ 0 provided [p, q, r] ≠ [0, 0, 0].

Proof

Proceeding by the method of Proof by Contradiction, we assume that the above inequality is actually false. In that case, after substituting the values for T, S, and s, we can write:
(9/8)^p = (16/15)^q ⋅ (25/24)^r

or
3^(2p) / 2^(3p) = 2^(4q) / (5^q ⋅ 3^q) ⋅ 5^(2r) / (2^3r ⋅ 3^r)

which gives
5^q ⋅ 3^(2p+q+r) ⋅ 2^(3r) = 5^(2r) ⋅ 3^0 ⋅ 2^(4q+3p)

By the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic [And1971], the exponents on both sides must be equal. So,
q = 2r
2p+q+r = 0
3r = 4q+3p

Putting q = 2r into the other two equations gives,
2p +3r = 0
3p + 5r = 0

which implies,
p = -2r

However, since p and r are both positive, the only solution then is the trivial
p = r = 0 ⇒ q = 0

This solution, however, represents the Unison {T^0, S^0, s^0} and also contradicts the starting condition that not all p, q, r are 0 simultaneously. Hence, the inequality {T^p} ≠ {S^q, s^r} must be true.

Similar proofs apply for {S^p} ≠ {T^q, s^r} and {s^p} ≠ {T^q, S^r}.

QED.

The Fundamental Theorem of Intervallic Atoms

There is a unique way of factoring a compound interval into constituent intervallic atoms.
{T^a, S^b, s^c} = {T^p, S^q, s^r} ⇔ a = p, b = q, c = r, where a, b, c, p, q, r ≥ 0.

Proof

We proceed by the method of Proof by Contradiction. Let us assume that there exist compound intervals which can be factored in more than one way. Let Д be the smallest such compound interval. Then, we can write:
Д = {T^a, S^b, s^c} = {T^p, S^q, s^r}, where a, b, c, p, q, r ≥ 0.

Trivially, at least one of the following identities must not hold
a = p
b = q
c = r
Otherwise both the representations of Д would be identical.

Also, [a, b, c] ≠ [0, 0, 0] and [p, q, r] ≠ [0, 0, 0]. Otherwise Д is the Unison.

Now, let min(x, y) be the minimum of the two values x & y. Define
e = min(a, p)
f = min(b, q)
g = min(c, r)
Then we have two cases.

Case 1: [e, f, g] ≠ [0, 0, 0]

This implies that the interval {T^e, S^f, s^g} is common to both the representations of Д and can be factored out:
Д ∖ {T^e, S^f, s^g } = {T^(a-e), S^(b-f), s^(c-g)} = {T^(p-e), S^(q-f), s^(r-g)}

Now, by the conditions of the assumption, Д is the smallest compound interval representable in more than one way. Clearly, both {T^(a-e), S^(b-f), s^(c-g)} and {T^(p-e), S^(q-f), s^(r-g)} are smaller than Д and both are compound intervals since they obviously have a representation in terms of the intervallic atoms.

Thus, by the conditions of the assumption, both necessarily have a unique representation. Since the intervals are identical, it implies that corresponding indices are identical:
a = p
b = q
c = r
which contradicts the conditions of the assumption. Hence, Д cannot exist in this case.

Case 2: [e, f, g] = [0, 0, 0]

Since not all the three indices (a, b, c or (p, q, r can be zero simultaneously, this case happens only if one index is 0 in one group and the other two indices are 0 in the other group. Without loss of generality, assume that a = q = r = 0. This means that Д can be written,
Д = {S^b, s^c}= {T^p}, where b, c, p  0.

However, by the Representation Lemma, this is impossible. Hence, Д cannot exist in this case.

Thus, there is no such Д representable in more than one way.

QED.

This theorem is termed the Fundamental Theorem of Intervallic Atoms.

Intervals as Mathematical Groups

Consider L = {m:n | m, n ∈ N, gcd(m, n = 1, n <= m <= 2n} which represents the set of all intervals in the range of an octave. Then ƛ = {L, ⋅} is a multiplicative Abelian Group if the multiplication operation ⋅ is defined consistently to be modulo 2:1 and closed under L. The neutral (or identity) element is the Unison 1:1.

References

[And1971] George E. Andrews, "Number Theory". Dover Publications Inc., 1971.

A Model for Implied Intonations in Classical हिन्दूस्तानी (Hindustani) Music - Sidebars

2008-07-13T18:33:00.017-05:00

Sidebars

The following are additional ruminations on my model of scales used in Classical हिन्दूस्तानी Music.

Weights-based grouping

An intriguing picture arises if we arbitrarily assign weights to the intervallic atoms in terms of increasing interval size:

1 = s (25:24)
2 = S (16:15)
4 = T (9:8)

Note that T is assigned 4 because T > { S, s } = 3.

These weights are also obliquely inspired by मुनि भरत's २२-शृति model in which three different interval sizes, possibly corresponding to the major tone, minor tone, and semitone, were assigned शृति values 4, 3, and 2. It is thought that these values were coarse approximations to the size of the associated interval.

Now, identify each of the notes in the model with the sum of the weights of the intervallic atoms which comprise the interval. This gives the following grouping:

00 = { 1/1 } = { S }
01 = { 25/24 } = { r1 }
02 = { 16/15 } = { r2 }
03 = { 10/9 } = { R1 }
04 = { 9/8, 256/225 } = { R2, R3 }
05 = { 75/64, 32/27 } = { g1, g2 }
06 = { 6/5} = { g3 }
07 = { 5/4 } = { G1 }
08 = { 81/64, 32/25 } = { G2, G3 }
09 = { 675/512, 4/3 } = { m-, m }
10 = { 27/20, 25/18 } = { m+, M1 }
11 = { 45/32, 64/45 } = { M2, M3 }
12 = { 36/25, 40/27 } = { M4, P- }
13 = { 3/2, 1024/675 } = { P, P+ }
14 = { 25/16, 128/81 } = { d1, d2 }
15 = { 8/5 } = { d3 }
16 = { 5/3 } = { D1 }
17 = { 27/16, 128/75 } = { D2, D3 }
18 = { 225/128, 16/9 } = { n1, n2 }
19 = { 9/5 } = { n3 }
20 = {15/8 } = { N1 }
21 = { 48/25 } = { N2 }
22 = { 2/1 } = { S* }

Note that some notes end up in the same weight group. These notes are precisely those which differ from each other by less than a Comma; by 2048:2025 (~19.55c) in fact, if you discount the four 'false' notes (m-, m+, P-, P+).

22 Weight Groups = २२ शृतिs ?

That there are 22 weight groups in the octave is no accident. It is a natural consequence of having chosen the weight values 1, 2, and 4 for the three intervallic atoms s, S, and T. As a result, the octave totals up to a weight of 22. However, what is indeed striking is that there are no weight groups which are empty, and many of them have a single member (especially if you discount the four 'false' notes).

What is also interesting is that the r, R, g, G, d, D, n, and N स्वर-स्थानs differentiate into two sub-groups each. Following the कोमल/तीव्र terminology employed earlier for each स्वर, one could consider a nomenclature of कोमल-तर, कोमल, तीव्र, and तीव्र-तर. Thus, r1 = कोमल-तर ऋषभ, r2 = कोमल ऋषभ, R1 = तीव्र ऋषभ, and R2/R3 = तीव्र-तर ऋषभ. Ditto for the other notes. The कोमल मध्यम is the only exception due to the peculiar consonant position it enjoys in the scale - and we assign it only one location (m). On the other hand, we consider the तीव्र मध्यम as differentiated into तीव्र मध्यम (M1), तीव्र-तर मध्यम (M2/M3), and तीव्र-तम मध्यम (M4).

For those who wish to view हिन्दूस्तानी scales in terms of a २२-शृति model, the mapping above may be useful. Note however that each शृति (weight group) is an equivalence class of notes and can be multivalued (e.g. weight group 11). This is consistent with the school of thought which holds that शृति positions are not necessarily precise interval values but denote a 'range' of intonational possibilities.

Scale Taxonomy

This section exists out of academic curiosity only and can be safely skipped in the first reading. It has no direct relevance to the rest of this work.

The current कर्नाटकी पद्धती's मेल taxonomy is extended as follows:

The first note is the Unison (1/1).
The second note is either a कोमल ऋषभ, तीव्र ऋषभ, or कोमल गाँधार.
The third note is either a तीव्र ऋषभ, कोमल गाँधार, or तीव्र गाँधार.
The fourth note is either the कोमल मध्यम or a तीव्र मध्यम.
The fifth note is either a तीव्र मध्यम or the पंचम.
The sixth note is either a कोमल धैवत, तीव्र धैवत, or कोमल निषाद.
The seventh note is either a तीव्र धैवत, कोमल निषाद, or तीव्र निषाद.
The selected notes have to be strictly in increasing order with a traversal path between each pair of neighbouring notes.

Each scale thus created is called a मेल following the current कर्नाटकी terminology. Note that some of the मेलs will not have the पंचम! However, at least one of the कोमल मध्यम or the पंचम is always present. No मेल has all three of the कोमल मध्यम, तीव्र मध्यम, and पंचम present because there is no such traversal path which encompasses all three clusters.

Each मेल can be given a unique identifier by concatenating the identifier of the individual notes that occur in the मेल.

The 42 options for the पूर्वाँग are listed below (the implicit S is dropped from the naming):

r1R1m
r1R1M2
r1g1m
r1g1M2
r1g2m
r1G1m
r1G1M2
r2R1m
r2R1M2
r2R3m
r2R3M4
r2g2m
r2g3m
r2g3M2
r2g3M4
r2G1m
r2G1M2
r2G3m
r2G3M4
R1g2m
R1G1m
R1G3M2
R2g1m
R2g1M2
R2g3m
R2g3M2
R2g3M4
R2G1m
R2G1M2
R2G2M2
R2G2M4
R2G3m
R2G3M4
R3g2m
R3G3m
R3G3M4
g1G1m
g1G1M2
g3G1m
g3G1M2
g3G3m
g3G3M4

The 42 options for the उत्तराँग are listed below:

M1d1D1
M1d1n1
M1d1n2
M1d1N1
M1d2n2
M1D1n2
M1D1N1
M1n1N1
M3d2n2
M3d3D1
M3d3D3
M3d3n2
M3d3n3
M3d3N1
M3d3N2
M3D1n2
M3D1N1
M3D3n2
M3D3N2
M3n3N1
M3n3N2
Pd1D1
Pd1n1
Pd1n2
Pd1N1
Pd3D1
Pd3D3
Pd3n2
Pd3n3
Pd3N1
Pd3N2
PD1n2
PD1N1
PD2n1
PD2n3
PD2N1
PD2N2
PD3n2
PD3N2
Pn1N1
Pn3N1
Pn3N2

The 5 'glue' options which connect the पूर्वाँग to the उत्तराँग are listed below:

mM1 - 21 पूर्वाँग options leading m, 8 उत्तराँग options trailing M1. Total 168.
mM3 - 21 पूर्वाँग options leading m, 13 उत्तराँग options trailing M3. Total 273.
mP - 21 पूर्वाँग options leading m, 21 उत्तराँग options trailing P. Total 441.
M2P - 13 पूर्वाँग options leading M2, 21 उत्तराँग options trailing P. Total 273.
M4P - 8 पूर्वाँग options leading M4, 21 उत्तराँग options trailing P. Total 168.

In all, this indicates that the TOTAL number of मेलs is 1323.

थाट् Taxonomy

This section exists out of academic curiosity only and can be safely skipped in the first reading. It has no direct relevance to the rest of this work.

The large number of मेलs can also be collapsed into a coarser taxonomy of 108 थाट्s. Following Bhatkhande's plan, this is done by not discriminating between the individual members of each स्वर cluster.

The 6 पूर्वाँग options are listed below:
rR
rg
rG
Rg
RG
gG

The 6 उत्तराँग options are listed below:
dD
dn
dN
Dn
DN
nN

The 3 मध्यम पंचम options are listed below:
mM
mP
MP

A Model for Implied Intonations in Classical हिन्दूस्तानी (Hindustani) Music

2008-07-06T23:44:00.117-05:00

What follows is a collection of my scattered meditations on modelling the scales used in classical हिन्दूस्तानी (Hindustani) music. A key difference is that my work uses a purely combinatorial approach instead of the more conventional transpositions (e.g. cycle of fifths, pitch-translation of harmonic scales, etc.) used by earlier efforts.

Disclaimer

The स्वरs of classical हिन्दूस्तानी music are not fixed intonational positions; and there is much to be said about the handling ('attack', 'release') and ornamentation of स्वरs during राग विस्तार which I don't deal with at all. There is also a certain 'flexibility' inherent in the use of स्वरs depending on the performer's personal taste and mood. Nevertheless, it is my belief that each स्वर can be assigned one or more implied intonations because रागs can be identified even when there is wide deviation in the performed intonation. This suggests that the psycho-acoustical perception of intervals involves pattern matching to an ideal intonational centre.

Abstract

This work outlines a new model for scales pertinent to the present day practice of classical हिन्दूस्तानी music. The model is based on intervallic atoms that arise naturally in the overtone series implied by a tonic. Whereas the current nomenclature in classical हिन्दूस्तानी music hems to a chromatic sequence of twelve स्वर-स्थानs, it is shown that the स्वर-स्थानs are equivalence classes of notes which represent the implied intervals across all रागs. The value of each note is derived from relatively simple first principles.

On शृति and स्वर

There has been considerable controversy on the subjects of शृति and स्वर in the sphere of classical हिन्दूस्तानी musicology. Most, if not all, of the discussions on this are in vain because the two crucial terms, शृति and स्वर, are not always defined clearly; and when they are, the definition varies from person to person. Further more, with respect to the हिन्दूस्तानी पद्धती, it has been demonstrated by Jairazbhoy [Jai1963, Jai1995] and Levy [Lev1981] (and more recently by Krishnaswamy [Kri2003] for the कर्नाटकी पद्धती) that the range of intonation of a स्वर was variable between:

Two performers exploring the same राग.
Two intonations of the same स्वर by a given performer in the same राग.

Clearly then, a स्वर represents a cluster of intonational possibilities, possibly around an implied tonal centre, which varies according to
(i) the melodic context (including the attack/release specific to the स्वर / राग at hand); and
(ii) the intonation implied by the performer based on her personal interpretation.

The topic of शृति is best avoided since no two practitioners can agree on what these are.

The present work is partly motivated by an internal resistance to the oft-repeated २२-शृति model [Bha1984] which has no basis in actual practice, at least in modern times. Whether it had a basis in earlier times is also in question: it is impossible that the २२-शृति system, as described by मुनि भरत, could have existed without being equally tempered [Bha1984]. It is more likely that मुनि भरत's description of the २२-शृति system was a happy approximation (given the constraints of measurement and mathematics during his time) or a thought-experiment and should not be taken too literally.

The Overtone Scale and the Intervallic Atoms

Intonational variability in actual performance notwithstanding, it is instructive to consider whether specific intervals are implied either in the acoustic or the psycho-acoustic domain. A tonic, established in the background by a drone, provides the beginnings of a justly intoned scale based on the (6-limit) overtone series:

1/1, 6/5, 5/4, 4/3, 3/2, 5/3, 2/1

where the intervals between successive notes are:

6:5, 25:24, 16:15, 9:8, 10:9, 6:5

The intervals between the notes provide the intervallic atoms which can be treated as first class entities for the purposes of the present model:

25:24 - Small Semitone - s
16:15 - Just Semitone - S
9:8 - Major Tone - T

Note, that the 10:9 (Minor Tone) is not an atom since it is composed of the { s, S } pair. The 6:5 (Just Minor Third) similarly is composed of the { S, T } pair.

It is instructive that with a तान-पुरा tuned to the tonic and its पंचम (Perfect Fifth), or मध्यम (Just Fourth), the set of intervallic atoms obtained is { 25:24, 16:15, 27:25 }. This set of atoms eventually leads to a 'dense chromatic' scale with 67 notes to the octave which is rather unwieldy and impractical to reason with. In such a model, "anything goes". The situation is worse with a 7-limit overtone series for even just a tonic: we get { 36:35, 25:24, 21:20, 16:15 } as intervallic atoms and end up with a really dense chromatic scale with 207 notes to the octave ...

The span of an octave can then be represented by the interval sequence:

{ S, T }, s, S, T, { s, S } , { S, T }

A natural consequence of identifying these intervallic atoms is to wonder about the possibility of new scales created by shuffling the positions of these intervallic atoms in the span of an octave.

Scale Generation using the Intervallic Atoms

The following questions naturally arise:

What kinds of genera can be constructed by bin-packing the intervallic atoms into the span of an octave?
Which of these genera are permissible in the हिन्दूस्तानी पद्धती?

As seen above, an octave can be spanned by a set of { 3 Major Tones, 4 Just Semitones, and 2 Small Semitones }. In fact, this is the only set which can do so (see The Fundamental Theorem of Intervallic Atoms). This yields 9C3 * 6C4 = 1260 genera. However, 684 of these have neither the Just Fourth nor the Perfect Fifth. The latter genera are ruled out as potential constructors of 'मेलs' (parent scales) in the हिन्दूस्तानी पद्धती. The remaining 576 genera can be used to construct candidate मेलs.

Another way of modelling this is to consider the octave as two overlapping Perfect Fifth Intervals. The first one spans the Unison (1/1) to the Perfect Fifth (3/2), the second one spans the Just Fourth (4/3) to the Octave (2/1). The interval of overlap is the Major Tone (9:8). The Perfect Fifths are spanned by a unique set of { 2 Major Tones, 2 Just Semitones, 1 Small Semitone }. The complementary Just Fourths are spanned by a unique set of { 1 Major Tone, 2 Just Semitones, 1 Small Semitone }.

Bin-packing the Perfect Fifth yields 5C2 * 3C2 = 30 unique genera.
Bin-packing the Just Fourth yields 4C1 * 3C2 = 12 unique genera.

Thus, bin-packing the Octave in the manner described above yields 30*12 + 12*30 - 12*1*12 = 576 unique genera.

The image on the left shows the graphical view of the 576 genera. Each node represents a possible note (its interval ratio indicated by the label) and an arrow from one node to another represents the interval between the corresponding notes. A traversal from the Unison (1/1) to the Octave (2/1) maps a unique genera.

Note that the notes naturally cluster together into 12 groups (counting the Unison and the Octave in the same group) - which reflects the modern day classification of १२ स्वर-स्थानs. Interestingly enough, some notes in a given cluster differ from their nearest neighbour by the interval of a Comma (81:80, ~21.5c) or less. At worst, the difference between two nearest neighbours in a cluster is no greater than a Quartertone of Equal Temperament (50c).

Each cluster is given a name, and, inspired by 19th century terminology, they are:

षड्ज = { 1/1, 2/1 }
कोमल ऋषभ = { 25/24, 16/15 }
तीव्र ऋषभ = { 10/9, 9/8, 256/225 }
कोमल गाँधार = { 75/64, 32/27, 6/5 }
तीव्र गाँधार = { 5/4, 81/64, 32/25 }
कोमल मध्यम = { 675/512, 4/3, 27/20 }
तीव्र मध्यम = { 25/18, 45/32, 64/45, 36/25 }
पंचम = { 40/27, 3/2, 1024/675 }
कोमल धैवत = { 25/16, 128/81, 8/5 }
तीव्र धैवत = { 5/3, 27/16, 128/75 }
कोमल निषाद = { 225/128, 16/9, 9/5 }
तीव्र निषाद = { 15/8, 48/25 }

Note that the term शुद्ध is avoided completely because it suggests the existence of a 'standard' scale. Instead, कोमल is used to indicate 'flat' notes and तीव्र to indicate the corresponding 'sharp' ones.

It can't be stressed enough that these notes represent the tonal centres around which there is a certain 'flexibility' (or sloppiness?) allowed during the exploration of a राग. Thus, in actual practice, there would be significant variation in the exact note intoned by a performer. The model above represents an ideal for the implied intonation.

Adjustments for Contemporary Practice

In contemporary हिन्दूस्तानी music, the "शुद्ध" मध्यम is (acoustically & musically) always the Just Fourth (4/3), and the पंचम is always the Perfect Fifth (3/2). Now, the 40/27 and 1024/675 notes are a Comma, or less, away from the intonationally strong Perfect Fifth (3/2) and will always be construed as a mis-tuned Perfect Fifth (or, as a 'false' fifth) by any listener since the पंचम plays a vital role via it's strong consonance in the scale. Similarly, the 675/512 and 27/20 are a Comma, or less, away from the Just Fourth (4/3) and will always be construed as a mis-tuned Just Fourth (or, as a 'false' fourth) for the same reasons. In practice, no scale which contains any of these four 'false' notes as न्यास स्थानs (rest locations) would be viable in the context of present-day हिन्दूस्तानी music. [This does not mean that these 'false', or wolf, intervals wouldn't exist between two arbitrary notes in a राग. For instance, a 27:20 interval exists in a राग, like मेघ (?), which employs the 10/9 ऋषभ and the 3/2 पंचम.] However, these notes could definitely exist as leading grace embellishments to the पंचम or मध्यम.

On Septimal Notes

Clements suggests that septimal notes were inducted into हिन्दूस्तानी music as a result of Islamic influence [Cle1913]. Specifically, based on the work of Raosaheb Krishnaji Ballal Deval, Clements identifies the following notes: 21/20, 21/16, 63/40, and 7/4. However, I'm not entirely convinced that Indian musicians have an innate understanding of septimal harmonies/intervals. Rather, I'm certain that they naturally converge to the equivalent quintal/tertian interval.

In the model above, the equivalents for the septimal notes are: 25/24, 675/512, 25/16, and 225/128. Each of these notes is less than 14c away from its corresponding septimal note, and thus is approximated by the septimal note effectively.

Notation for the Notes

Each cluster is notated using a one letter roman symbol which represents its (transliterated) name. कोमल clusters are denoted by a lower-case letter, and the corresponding तीव्र clusters by the upper-case letter. Notes within a cluster are identified using integers suffixed to the cluster symbol in increasing order of interval size. The four 'false' notes are identified with -/+ signs as appropriate. The interval value in cents is noted in parenthesis.

षड्ज Cluster
S = 1/1 (0.00c), 2/1 (1200.0c)

कोमल ऋषभ Cluster
r1 = 25/24 (70.67c)
r2 = 16/15 (111.73c)

तीव्र ऋषभ Cluster
R1 = 10/9 (182.40c)
R2 = 9/8 (203.91c)
R3 = 256/225 (223.46c)

कोमल गाँधार Cluster
g1 = 75/64 (274.58c)
g2 = 32/27 (294.13c)
g3 = 6/5 (315.64c)

तीव्र गाँधार Cluster
G1 = 5/4 (386.31c)
G2 = 81/64 (407.82c)
G3 = 32/25 (427.37c)

कोमल मध्यम Cluster
m- = 675/512 (478.49c)
m = 4/3 (498.04c)
m+ = 27/20 (519.55c)

तीव्र मध्यम Cluster
M1 = 25/18 (568.72c)
M2 = 45/32 (590.22c)
M3 = 64/45 (609.78c)
M4 = 36/25 (631.28c)

पंचम Cluster
P- = 40/27 (680.45c)
P = 3/2 (701.96c)
P+ = 1024/675 (721.51c)

कोमल धैवत Cluster
d1 = 25/16 (772.63c)
d2 = 128/81 (792.18c)
d3 = 8/5 (813.69c)

तीव्र धैवत Cluster
D1 = 5/3 (884.36c)
D2 = 27/16 (905.87c)
D3 = 128/75 (925.42c)

कोमल निषाद Cluster
n1 = 225/128 (976.54c)
n2 = 16/9 (996.09c)
n3 = 9/5 (1017.60c)

तीव्र निषाद Cluster
N1 = 15/8 (1088.27c)
N2 = 48/25 (1129.33c)

Forward Consonances

All notes in the model have a note with which they form a consonance of the मध्यम (Just Fourth) or the पंचम (Perfect Fifth) with the following exceptions:

G2 (81/64), m- (675/512), m+ (27/20), M2 (45/32), M4 (36/25) don't have a corresponding पंचम but they do have a मध्यम.
Reciprocally, M1 (25/18), M3 (64/45), P- (40/27), P+ (1024/675), d2 (128/81) don't have a corresponding मध्यम but they do have a पंचम.

Each note in the model is thus a candidate for a वादी-संवादी pair for those who still adhere to the वादी-संवादी theory.

Future Work

Given any model for हिन्दूस्तानी music, one way to validate its practicality in reasoning about रागs is to synthesize specific राग based melodies from the model and subjectively assess whether they are identifiable as the intended राग. However, before that, there needs to be agreement on whether the choice of notes for a given राग is indeed accurate. Both these issues are closely related topics which need more analysis and research. As an example, consider the two scales below which can be generated from the model above:

1/1, 25/24, 75/64, 45/32, 3/2, 25/16, 15/8, 2/1

1/1, 16/15, 6/5, 36/25, 3/2, 8/5, 48/25, 2/1

Or, using the notation:

S, r1, g1, M2, P, d1, N1, S*

S, r2, g3, M4, P, d3, N2, S*

Both the above scales fall under the aegis of the modern तोड़ी ठाट (SrgMPdNS). However, does the first scale represent the canonical तोड़ी while the second मुल्तानी?

Another issue to resolve is exactly how much deviation around the tonal centres is allowable before advanced practitioners conclusively detect that a performer has become बे-सुर with respect to the राग being explored.

Sidebars

There are additional ruminations not directly related to the main text of this post. The section on "Weights-based grouping" is especially interesting.

References

[Bha1984] Pt. Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande, "Music Systems in India: A Comparative Study of Some of the Leading Music Systems of the 15th, 16th, 17th, & 18th Centuries", South Asia Books, 1984.

[Cle1913] Ernest Clements, "Introduction To The Study Of Indian Music: An Attempt To Reconcile Modern Hindustani Music With Ancient Musical Theory And To Propound An Accurate And Comprehensive Method Of Treatment Of The Subject Of Indian Musical Intonation", Longmans, Green, and Co., 1913.

[Jai1963] Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy, A. W. Stone, "Intonation in Present Day North Indian Classical Music", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1963. pp. 119-132.

[Jai1995] ^^Electronic analysis has confirmed that there is variation in intonation from one musician to another, as well as for a single musician during the course of a performance^^, Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy, "The Rags of North Indian Music: Their Structure and Evolution", Popular Prakashan, 1995, pg 34.

[Kri2003] Arvindh Krishnaswamy, "Pitch Measurements versus Perception of South Indian Classical Music", Proceedings of the Stockholm Music Acoustics Conference (SMAC 03), 2003.

[Lev1981] Mark Levy, "Intonation in North Indian Music: A Select Comparison of Theories with Contemporary Practice". Biblia Impex Pvt. Ltd., 1981.

urdU verbs (ye) / उर्दू अफ़्`आल (य)

2008-04-22T16:00:00.001-05:00

This is a list of non-compound hindUstAnI verbs that have the ye (ي) of the fArsI alphabet as the first letter. See my earlier post "A Deluge of Verbs ...?" for a background. This list was generated by mining the online version of Platts' Dictionary, and is a verbatim copy of the entries therein. This list may not be exhaustive & complete.

1 non-compound verb starting with the ye is listed below.

H ياچنا याचना yāćnā, or jāćnā, v.t. & int.=جاچنا jāćnā, q.v.

urdU verbs (ChHOTI he) / उर्दू अफ़्`आल (ह)

2008-04-22T15:49:00.003-05:00

This is a list of non-compound hindUstAnI verbs that have the ChHOTI he (ه) of the fArsI alphabet as the first letter. See my earlier post "A Deluge of Verbs ...?" for a background. This list was generated by mining the online version of Platts' Dictionary, and is a verbatim copy of the entries therein. This list may not be exhaustive & complete.

144 non-compound verbs starting with the ChHOTI he are listed below.

H هاپنا हापना hāpnā, v.n. prop. hāṅpnā, q.v.

H هارنا हारना hārnā [har˚ = Prk. हारे(इ) or हार(इ), fr. S. हार 'loss,' &c., rt. हृ], v.n. To be defeated, be worsted, be overcome, be unsuccessful; to lose (in play, or in battle, &c.); to fail;--to be fatigued, or tired out; to become dispirited;--to become old or feeble;--v.t. To lose:--hār-jānā, v.n. intensive of hārnā:--hār-denā, v.t. (intens.) To lose; to squander; to gamble away:--baćan hārnā (-ko), To give one's word, to promise.

H هاڙنا हाड़ना hāṛnā (dialec.), v.t. To examine the correctness of (a pair of scales), or to test the accuracy of (weights and measures):--hāṛ-lenā, v.t. intens. of hāṛnā.

H هاکنا हाकना hāknā, v.t. (dialec.)=hāṅknā, q.v.

H هالنا हालना hālnā [hāl˚ = Prk. हल्ल(इ)=S. व्हल्य(ते), pass. (used actively) of rt. व्हल्], v.n. To move, shake, tremble, vibrate; to be agitated;--(gerund) shaking, trembling; ague-fit, paroxysm (e.g. yah dawā mat khānā tap-ke hālne-meṅ).

H هانپنا हांपना hāṅpnā [hāṅp˚ = Prk. हंप(इ)=धंप(इ), or धंपे(इ)=S. ध्मापय(ति), caus. of rt. ध्मा], v.n. To blow, puff, pant, be out of breath.

H هانپهنا हांफना hāṅphnā [hāṅp˚ = Prk. हंप(इ)=धंप(इ), or धंपे(इ)=S. ध्मापय(ति), caus. of rt. ध्मा], v.n. To blow, puff, pant, be out of breath.

H هانڐنا हांडना hāṅḍnā [hāṅḍ˚ prob. Prk. भंड(इ)=S. भण्ड(तें), rt. भण्ड्;--or=S. हिण्ड(ते), rt. हिण्ड्], v.n. To wander, ramble, stray about; to gad about (syn. bhaṭaknā, bhramnā).

H هانسنا हांसना hāṅsnā, v.n. (rustic or dialec.) =هنسنا haṅsnā, q.v.

H هانکنا हांकना hāṅknā [hāṅk˚ = Prk. हक्क(इ), or हक्के(इ), fr. S. हक्+कृ], v.n. & v.t. To cry out, shout, bawl (to, -ko);--to drive, urge on (a beast, by shouts and cries, &c.); to work (by driving); to carry on, to conduct;--to drive out or off or away;--to tell, utter, bring out, pour forth (e.g. jhak hāṅknā, 'to utter ravings, to rave'; jhūṭī-saććī hāṅknā, 'to utter or pour forth lies'; dūn-kī hāṅknā, 'to utter boasting, to boast';--cf. P. rāndan; sukhan rāndan, &c.);--to drive off (flies, &c., with a fan), to use (a fan), to fan:--hāṅk-denā, v.t. intens. of and=hāṅknā:--dām ʻhāṅknā (-ke liye), To ask an exorbitant price (for).

H هبکنا हबकना habaknā, v.t. &c.=hapaknā, q.v.

H هپرانا हपराना haparānā or haprānā [˚rā, prob. caus. aff.; or=Prk. dim. ड=S. र+ānā, as in haphhaphānā q.v.], v.t. To eat with a noise; to munch:--haprīke khānā, v.t. Idem.

H هپکنا हपकना hapaknā [hapak˚, prob. = Prk. हप्पक्के(इ), fr. S. त्र्हप्+कृ; or akin to jhapak˚, q.v.], v.t. To swallow suddenly and with a noise, to gobble, to bolt;--v.n. To wonder, marvel:--hapak-lenā, v.t. (intens.) To gulp down, to gobble up.

H هپهہپهانا हफहफाना haphhaphānā [haphhaph˚, by redupl. of hāṅph(nā), q.v.+ ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+ nā], v.n. To blow, pant, gasp.

H هتنا हतना hatnā [hat˚ = Prk. हत्ते(इ) or हत्त(इ), fr. हत्त=S. हत, p.p.p. of rt. हन्], v.t. To slay, kill, to slaughter (i.q. hannā, q.v.).

H هتهوڙيانا हथौड़ियाना hathauṛiyānā [hathauṛiya˚ = hathauṛī, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To strike or beat with a hammer, to hammer.

H هتهيانا हथियाना hathiyānā (hathiyā, q.v. + ā = āw, &c., as in hathauṛiyānā, q.v.), v.t. To take hold of, to seize; to lay hands on; to occupy; to appropriate; to purloin, pilfer, pocket; to obtain by fraud.

H هتيانا हतियाना hatiyānā, v.t.=hathiyānā, q.v.

H هٿانا हटाना haṭānā (caus. of haṭnā, q.v.), v.t. To take away, to remove; to move out of the way, put back, put aside;--to cause to recede, to drive back or off, to repel; to worst, foil;--to put off, postpone:--haṭā-denā, v.t. (intens.) To move aside or out of the way;--to drive back, to repel, repulse, &c. (see haṭānā).

H هٿکانا हटकाना haṭkānā (caus. of haṭaknā, q.v.) v.t. To cause to retreat, to drive back, to repulse;--to check, stop, hinder, prevent;--(dialec.) to shout to in defiance, to challenge;--to accost.

H هٿکنا हटकना haṭaknā [haṭak˚, prob.=Prk. हटक्के(इ), fr. S. हृत (p.p.p. of rt. हृ)+कृ], v.n. To be sent or driven back, to be repulsed; to be checked or stopped; to retreat;--to move;--to stop;--to be backward; to have a misgiving; to hesitate, to shrink (from, -se), be averse (to); to boggle.

H هٿنا हटना haṭnā [haṭ˚, prob.=S. हृत, p.p.p. of rt. हृ], v.n. To move out of the way (of); to move away (from, -se), to fall back, to retire, recede; to move, stir, or budge (from);--to be driven back, be repulsed; to retreat;--to shrink or recoil (from), to be averse (to); to be sated or cloyed;--to go back (from), withdraw, back out (of);--to decline, or fall away (from), to backslide;--to be put off, be postponed;--to die:--haṭ-jānā, v.n. (intens.) To move away, to go aside; to retreat, &c.:--jī haṭ-jānā (-se), The mind to be averse (from); to be sated, &c.

H هٿنا हटना haṭnā (fr. haṭ, q.v.), v.n. To be pertinacious, or obstinate, &c. (i.q. haṭh karnā).

H هٿهرنا हठरना haṭharnā (fr. haṭhar), v.n. To hurry; to be impatient.

H هٿهنا हठना haṭhnā (fr. haṭh, q.v.), v.n. To be pertinacious, or importunate, &c. (i.q. haṭh karnā, q.v.s.v. haṭh).

H هچکانا हिचकाना hićkānā (causat. of hićaknā, q.v.), v.t. To seize and take (from) violently; to pluck; to snatch (from);--to pull or jerk up or away;--to jerk; to jolt.

H هچکچانا हिचकिचाना hićkićānā [hićkićā˚, by redupl. of khic˚ (=khiṅć˚ = kheṅć, rt. of kheṅćnā, q.v.) + ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā], v.n. To draw back; to waver, hesitate; to doubt, be in suspense; to falter; to hum and haw;--to wriggle; to hitch.

H هچکنا हिचकना hićaknā [hićak˚, prob. fr. hića (=khića = kheṅć, rt. of kheṅćnā)+S. कृ], v.n. To draw back (from, -se), to shrink (from), to stop, to hesitate, to boggle, to waver; to turn (from) in loathing or aversion; to decline;--to jerk, to move by jerks, to hitch, to hobble; to wriggle, twist (cf. khisaknā).

H هچکيانا हिचकियाना hićkiyānā [hićkiyā˚ = hićkī+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā], v.n. To hiccough.

H هچمچانا हिचमिचाना hićmićānā, v.n. (dialec.)=hićkićānā, q.v.

H هچنا हिचना hićnā (hić˚ = kheṅć(nā), q.v.), v.n.=hićaknā, q.v.

H هدرانا हदराना hadrānā (caus. of hadarnā), v.t. To cause to shake or tremble (by a shock or blow, &c.); to jolt;--to shake, to agitate.

H هدرنا हदरना hadarnā [hadar˚, prob.=Prk. हदड=S. हत (p.p.p. rt. हन्)+र], v.n. (dialec.) To shake tremulously (as from a shock or concussion), to tremble, shiver, quake; to vibrate;--to be jolted.

H هدهدانا हिदहिदाना hidhidānā, or हदहदाना hadhadānā(?), v.n. (dialec.) To become melted, or soft, or flaccid; to lose firmness and soundness.

H هديانا हदियाना hadiyānā [perhaps fr. Prk. हद=S. हत, rt. हन्; or fr. Prk. हद्धि=S. हा+धिक्], v.n. To be agitated (about), to be alarmed or apprehensive (of, -se), to be timid or shy (of); to tremble (at), to shrink (from), to hesitate, to scruple (cf. hadarnā).

H هڐکنا हुडकना huḍaknā, v.n.=هڙکنا huṛaknā, q.v.

H هڐيانا हड्डियाना haḍḍiyānā, or हडियाना haḍiyānā [haḍḍiyā˚ = haḍḍī+ā = āw = Prk. आव=आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā], v.n. To ossify.

H هرانا हराना harānā, or हिराना hirānā [harā˚ or hirā˚ = harāw˚ or hirāw˚ = Prk. हाराव(इ)=S. हार (rt. हृ)+caus. aug. आपय(ति)], v.t. To defeat, overcome, overthrow, conquer; to win; to beat (at any game, &c.), to foil, worst; to hunt down;--to outwit; to weary, tire out;--(hirānā) to lose, to mislay:--hirānā, or hirā-jānā, v.n. To be lost; to be mislaid; to be missing:--harā-denā, v.t. intens. of harānā.

H هراونا हरावना harāwnā or harāʼonā, or हिरावना hirāwnā or hirāʼonā, v.t.=harānā, q.v.:--hirāwnā, v.n.=hirānā, q.v.

H هرسنا हरसना harasnā, or हरिसना harisnā [haris˚ = Prk. हरिस(इ)=S. हर्ष(ति), rt. हृष्], v.n. (dialec.)=harshnā, q.v.

H هرشنا हर्षना harshnā [harsh˚ = S. हर्ष(ति), rt. हृष्], v.n. To be delighted, or glad, or pleased; to rejoice, exult; to be happy;--to blow, to bloom (as a flower).

H هرکانا हरकाना harkānā (caus. of haraknā), v.t.=هڙکانا haṛkānā, q.v.

H هرکانا हिरकाना hirkānā, v.t. (dialec.) To join;--to move.

H هرکنا हरकना haraknā, v.n. (dialec.)=هڙکنا haṛaknā, q.v.

H هرکنا हिरकना hiraknā (prob. i.q. haraknā), v.n. (dialec.) To meet (with);--to turn away (from), to feel aversion (for), to loathe;--to scamper.\

H هرکهنا हरखना harakhnā, v.n.=harasnā = harshnā, qq.v.

H هرنا हरना harnā [Prk. हरणअं; S. हरणीयं, rt. हृ], v.t. To take, seize; to take away, to remove; to take by force, to carry off; to kidnap; to steal, plunder, spoil, destroy;--to captivate, charm, bewitch.

H هرنا हुरना hurnā (cf. hūlnā), v.t. To beat down (as paviors).

H هرهرانا हुरहुराना hurhurānā [hurhurā˚ = S. घुर्घुरक+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+ nā], v.n. To growl (as a tiger, &c.), &c.; to purr (as a cat); to purl (as a brook);--to shiver (as in ague).

H هريانا हरियाना hariyānā [hariyā, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.) + nā], v.n. To become verdant, to wax green, &c. (i.q. harā-honā, q.v.).

H هريانا हरियाना hariyānā (hariy˚, prob. for harī, fem. part. of harnā+ānā as in the preceding), v.t. (dialec.) To stop, to prevent.

H هڙبڙانا हड़बड़ाना haṛbaṛānā [haṛbaṛ˚, perhaps fr. S. हूल (rt. हूल्) by redupl. or alliteration (cf. hālnā);--or akin to khalbal˚, or ghabr(ānā), qq.v.;--˚ānā = ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā], v.n. To be flurried, to be confused, to be agitated; to be in consternation;--to be in a hurry; to hurry; to be precipitate;--to start up from a troubled dream or sleep; to be fidgety, or restless;--to rumble (as the bowels);--v.t. To flurry, to confuse, to perplex.

H هڙکانا हड़काना haṛkānā (caus. of haṛaknā), v.t. To cause to long for;--to tantalize;--to drive away, turn out; to discourage, deter; to estrange;--to stop, prevent, forbid;--to scorch (prop. harkānā).

H هڙکنا हड़कना haṛaknā, v.n. To feel a great desire (for), to have a longing (for), to long, crave;--to grieve (for), to fret, pine;--to be driven away; to be kept at a distance; to be estranged;--to be discouraged, or deterred;--to stop;--to remove;--to be scorched (in this sense haraknā is the usual form).

H هڙکنا हुड़कना huṛaknā, v.n. To fret, to pine (i.q. haṛaknā);--to peep (i.q. hulaknā).

H هڙکنا हुड़कना huṛaknā, v.t. (dialec.) To remember.

H هڙنا हड़ना haṛnā, v.n. (dialec.) To be tested (as the accuracy of a weight, &c.).

H هڙهڙانا हड़हड़ाना haṛhaṛānā, हुड़हुड़ाना huṛhuṛānā, or हिड़हिड़ाना hiṛhiṛānā [haṛhaṛ˚ = halhal˚, by redupl. fr. S. हूल(ति), rt. हूल्; cf. haṛbaṛānā], v.n. To shudder, to shiver (as in an ague, &c.), to tremble, shake, flutter (from excitement, &c.);--to crash; to rattle; to twang (as a bow-string); to rumble;--to hurry (i.q. haṛbaṛānā).

H هسانا हसाना hasānā (caus. of hasnā), v.t.=haṅsānā, q.v.

H هسنا हसना hasnā, v.n. To laugh, &c. (i.q. haṅsnā, q.v.).

H هشکارنا हुशकारना huśkārnā (hush + kārnā, qq.v.), v.t. To scare away (birds, &c.), to put to flight;--to halloo, to set (dogs) on, to incite.

H هکارنا हकारना hakārnā, v.t.=هنکارنا haṅkārnā, q.v.

H هکالنا हकालना hakālnā, v.t. (dialec.)=hakārnā.

H هکاونا हकावना hakāwnā, or hakāʼonā, v.t.=haṅkāwnā, q.v.

H هکبکانا हकबकाना hakbakānā [hak-bak, the weak form of hakkā-bakkā, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.) + nā], v.n. To be dumb-foundered; to become confused, or irresolute; to be aghast.

H هکلانا हकलाना haklānā (haklā, q.v.+ānā, as in hakbakānā, q.v.), v.n. To stammer, stutter, falter:--haklā-ke bolnā, v.n.=haklānā.

H هگانا हगाना hagānā (caus. of hagnā), v.t. To cause to go to stool; to produce action of the bowels; to purge.

H هگنا हगना hagnā [hag˚ = Prk. हग्ग(इ); fr. S. हद्+कृ], v.n. To go to stool, to evacuate; to dung, to mute.

H هلارنا हिलारना hilārnā, v.t. (dialec. or rustic)=hilānā, q.v.;--v.n.=hilornā (?), q.v.

H هلانا हिलाना hilānā, (dialec.) हलाना halānā (caus. of hilnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to shake, or rock, or vibrate, &c.; to shake, rock, stir, move, agitate, wag;--to familiarize, inure; to domesticate, tame.

H هلانا हिलाना hilānā (caus. of helnā), v.t. To cause to swim.

H هلبلانا हलबलाना halbalānā, v.n. (dialec.)=haṛbaṛānā, q.v.;--v.t. To impair.

H هلپنا हलपना halapnā [halap˚ = Prk. हलप्प(इ)=S. व्हलाप्य(ते), caus. pass. of rt. व्हल्], v.n. To toss about, to tumble about, to flounder;--to shudder, shiver (in ague, &c.).

H هلرانا हलराना halrānā [prob. a caus. form of hālnā, q.v.), v.t. (dialec.) To shake; to toss up and down, to dandle, play with, amuse.

H هلراونا हलरावना halrāwnā [prob. a caus. form of hālnā, q.v.), v.t. (dialec.) To shake; to toss up and down, to dandle, play with, amuse.

H هلسانا हुलसना hulsānā (caus. of hulasnā), v.t. To gladden, delight, rejoice, exhilarate, cheer; to encourage, inspirit, inspire with hope of;--to stir up, excite, stimulate.

H هلسنا हुलसना hulasnā [hulas˚ = Prk. उल्लस(इ)=S. उल्लस(ति), rt. लस् with उद्], v.n. To be gladdened, be rejoiced, be pleased or delighted, be cheered, &c. (see hulsānā); to rejoice.

H هلکارنا हुलकारना hulkārnā (see hulaknā), v.t. To incite, to set on (as cocks, &c., to fight), to halloo on (as a dog on a bull, &c.).

H هلکانا हलकाना halkānā [halkā, q.v. + ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आ (caus. aug.) + nā], v.t. To lighten (i.q. halkā karnā).

H هلکانا हलकाना halkānā (caus. of halaknā), v.t. To cause to move; to spur on, to incite, to abet.

H هلکنا हलकना halaknā [Prk. हलक्क(इ), fr. S. व्हल+कृ], v.n. To move.

H هلکنا हिलकना hilaknā [Prk. हिलक्क(इ), fr. S. व्हृ+कृ; cf. hilnā], v.n. To writhe, to suffer contortions (from affliction or pain), to be contorted, or convulsed;--to clutch, to cling (to); cf. hilagnā.

H هلکنا हुलकना hulaknā [Prk. हुड्डक्के(इ), fr. S. हूड्+कृ; cf. hūlnā], v.t. To rush upon, to attack, to charge;--to search;--v.n. To peep (i.q. huṛaknā).

H هلکورنا हिलकोरना hilkornā, or हलकोरना halkornā (akin to hilaknā), v.t. To gather up, collect, accumulate;--to shake, agitate; to disturb; to confound, perplex;--v.n. To fluctuate; to waver;--to billow, surge.

H هلگانا हिलगना hilgānā (caus. of hilagnā), v.t. To suspend, to tie loosely (to, -se), to hang, to attach; to keep dangling;--to cause or enable (one) to obṭain employment, to put (one) into a berth or post:--hilgā-denā, v.t. intens. of and=hilgānā.

H هلگنا हिलगना hilagnā (prob. a var. form of hilaknā, q.v.), v.n. To be suspended, to be hung on; to be entangled or involved;--to hang (by or to); to cling or cleave (to), to stick, to adhere;--to be undetermined or undecided; to be wavering, or in a state of vacillation.

H هلنا हिलना hilnā [hil˚ = Prk. हिर(इ) or हिल(इ)=S. व्हर(ति), rt. व्हृ], v.n. To shake, move, stir; to heave; to go (or to sway) to and fro, to rock; to vibrate; to tremble;--to be moved, to be agitated;--to be familiarized; to be domesticated, to be tamed:--hil-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=hilnā.

H هلورنا हिलोरना hilornā, (dialec.) हलोरना halornā. (see hilor), v.n. To shake; to swing or rock to and fro; to be agitated;--to wave, billow, surge; to eddy;--v.t. To shake together; to gather up, to collect, accumulate.

H هلہلانا हलहलाना halhalānā, v.n. To shake, shiver, shudder, &c. (i.q. harharānā, q.v.);--v.t. To cause to shake or tremble, &c.; to shake;--to imprecate, curse.

H هليانا हलियाना haliyānā, or हुलियाना huliyānā [haliy˚, prob.=Prk. हल्लिआ (see hālnā)+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.) + nā], v.n. To heave (as the stomach); to feel nausea, to nauseate (syn. matlānā).

H هليانا हुलियाना huliyānā (huliy˚, for hūlī (fr. hūl-nā, q.v.)+ānā, as in the preceding), v.t. To gore; to butt.

H همسانا हुमसाना humsānā, v.t. (dialec.) To scare;--to raise.

H همکنا हुमकना humaknā [humak˚, prob.=Prk. धुवक्क (इ), fr. S. धाव+कृ], v.n. To rush (upon, -par); to make an attack (upon), to assault; to leap forward; to stretch forward;--to make spasmodic efforts at walking, to attempt to walk (as a child;--also humak-kar ćalnā).

H همگنا हुमगना humagnā, v.n. A dialec. form of humaknā, q.v.

H هنا हन्ना hannā, v.t. See هننا hannā.

H هنا हुन्ना hunnā, v.t. See هننا hunnā.

H هنپانا हंपाना haṅpānā (caus. of hāṅpnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to blow or pant; to put out of breath.

H هنپنا हंपना haṅpnā, v.n.=هانپنا hāṅpnā, q.v.

H هنپهنا हंफना haṅphnā, v.n.=hāṅphnā = hāṅpnā, q.v.

H هندورنا हिंदोरना hiṅdornā [or hiṅdolnā; prob. fr. S. हिन्दोल], v.t. To puddle.

H هندولنا हिंदोलना hindolnā, v.t.=hindornā, q.v.

H هنڐانا हंडाना haṅḍānā (caus. of hānḍnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to roam or to wander; to send or drive forth or out; to expel, banish; to disgrace by public exposure, &c. (as by taking one round a city on an ass);--to take or move round (syn. ghumānā).

H هنسانا हंसाना haṅsānā (caus. of haṅsnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to laugh; to tickle, to please:--haṅsā-denā, v.t. intens. of and=haṅsānā.

H هنسنا हंसना haṅsnā [haṅs˚ = Prk. हस(इ) = S. हस(ति), rt. हस्], v.n. To laugh, to smile; to be merry; to jest, joke, make fun;--to laugh (at, -par), to make fun (of); to jeer, ridicule, deride;--s.m. Laughing, laughter;--laugher; ridiculer; jester;--adj. Risible:--haṅs-uṭhnā, v.n. To burst out laughing:--haṅs-denā, v.n. (intens.), To laugh out; to laugh.

H هنسوڙنا हंसोड़ना hāṅsoṛnā (fr. haṅsoṛ), v.n. (dialec.) To play the part of a wag or facetious person; to practise facetiousness or merriment.

H هنکاٿنا हंकाटना haṅkāṭnā, v.t. (dialec.)=haṅkārnā, q.v.

H هنکارنا हंकारना haṅkārnā [haṅkār˚ = Prk. हक्कार(इ), or हक्कारे(इ)=S. हक्कारय(ति), denom. fr. हक्कार, fr. हक्], v.n. To call, bawl, halloo;--v.t. To call to, to bawl to; to halloo after (as in the chase);--to brave;--to drive (oxen, &c.); to drive away, to keep off (by shouting); to expel;--to start or set off (a cart, carriage, or train, &c.);--to put off (a boat); to hoist or set (sail, in order to put off).

H هنکانا हंकाना haṅkānā [haṅkā˚ = haṅkāw˚ = Prk. हक्काव(इ), or हक्कावे(इ), fr. S. हक्+कृ, with caus. aug. āpi], v.n. & t.=hāṅknā, and haṅkārnā, qq.v.

H هنکالنا हंकालना haṅkālnā, v.t. & n. (dialec.)=haṅkārnā, q.v.

H هنکاونا हंकावना haṅkāwnā, haṅkāʼonā, (dialec.) v.n. & t.=haṅkānā, q.v.

H هنکرانا हंकराना haṅkrānā, v.t. & n. (dialec.)=haṅkārnā, q.v.

H هنکلانا हंकलाना haṅklānā, v.n. corr. of haklānā, q.v.

H هنکنا हुनकना hunaknā [prob. fr. S. हुम्+कृ], v.n. To sob; to weep.

H هننا हनना hannā [han˚ = Prk. हण(इ); S. हन्ति (but Vedic also I cl. हनति), rt. हन्], v.t. To strike, smite; to kill, slay, destroy, murder.

H هننا हनना hannā [han˚ prob.=S. भण(ति), rt. भण्], v.n. To speak, to break silence (e.g. kućh hantā hai na bhantā hai):--hannā-bhannā (also hanaknā-bhanaknā), v.n.=hannā.

H هننا हुनना hunnā [hun˚ = Prk. हुण(इ) or धुण(इ)=S. धुनो(ति), rt. धू], v.t. To offer up, to sacrifice.

H هنہنانا हिनहिनाना hinhinānā, (dialec.) हिंहिंनाना hiṅhiṅnānā [hinhinā˚ = S. हिम्, redupl.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.) + nā], v.n. To neigh; to whinny;--(as a gerund) s.m. Neighing.

H هوآنا होआना ho-ānā, v.n. See s.v. هونا honā.

H هوانا हवाना hawānā, or हौआना hauʼānā [prob. S. हो or हौ + ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā], v.n. (dialec.) To scream, screech.

H هوجانا होजाना ho-jānā, v.n. See s.v. honā.

H هوچکنا होचुकना ho-ćuknā, v.n. See s.v. honā.

H هوچلنا होचलना ho-ćalnā, v.n. See s.v. honā.

H هوچنا हूचना hūćnā [hūć˚, prob.=S. हूर्छ(ति), rt. हुर्छ 'to go crookedly'], v.n. To go wide (of the mark), to miss, to err, to mistake.

H هوشکارنا होशकारना hośkārnā (prob. hush, vocat. part., q.v.+kārnā), v.t. To disappoint, to baulk.

H هوکنا हूकना hūknā (cf. hūćnā, and ćūknā), v.n. To go or fall wide (of the mark), to fail to hit, to miss; to make a mistake; to err; to slip.

H هوکنا हूकना hūknā [prob. hūk˚ = Prk. हुक्क(इ)=S. हू+कृ], v.n. To cry or sob from pain; to cry; sob; to fret, pine.

H هوکنا हौकना hauknā, v.n.=هونکنا hauṅknā, q.v.

H هولکنا हूलकना hūlaknā, v.n. To peep (i.q. hulaknā, q.v.

H هولنا हूलना hūlnā [hūl˚ = Prk. हूड(इ) or हूडे(इ)=S. हूडय(ति), caus. of rt. हूड्], v.t. To drive (as an ox, or an elephant), to urge forward; to impel; to goad; to thrust; to push; to stab;--to rush upon, to attack;--v.n. To thrust (at, -par);--to rush (upon):--hūl-denā, v.t. intens. of and=hūlnā.

H هومنا होमना homnā (fr. hom), v.t. To make the oblation (of clarified butter, &c.) which characterizes the hom.

H هونا होना honā [ho˚ = Prk. हो(इ), or हुव(इ), or हव(इ) or भव(इ)=S. भव(ति), rt. भू], v n. To be, to exist; to subsist; to be born; to become; to attain (to);--to come; to accrue, result; to be effected, be accomplished; to be committed (as sin, fault, &c.);--to come to pass, to take place, to happen, occur; to turn out, to prove to be, to prove;--to serve, answer, do; to succeed;--to pass as;--to stand (for);--to belong (to);--to come to an end, to be over; to cease, to stop, to desist; to die (in these senses, gen. ho-jānā);--to be exhausted, (vulg.) to be done up;--(as a gerund) s.m. Being; becoming; existence; possibility;--adj. Possible:--ho-ānā, v.n. To become all at once; to come forth, or to come forth suddenly; to spring up, to arise:--ho-baiṭhnā, v.n. To be laid up (with);--to settle down as; to set up for; to pass oneself off (as):--ho-jānā, v.n. To become; to be born, &c. (i.q. honā, of which it is the intens. form);--to be and go; to have been (chiefly in the past, e.g. ho gayā, 'he has been and gone, or he has been'):--ho-ćuknā (completive), v.n. To be finished, be completed; to come to an end; to have taken place; to pass, to have elapsed;--to be all over;--to pass away, to die;--to be already; to be irrevocably or positively:--ho-ćalnā, v.n. To set in, begin, commence;--to be well advanced; to be well in hand; to be approaching completion, to be nearly finished or done:--ho-rahnā, v.n. To be; to become; to remain, continue, keep; to remain or abide as;--to come into possession, to abide or remain in the possession (of, e.g. māl bahuterā phir ho-rahegā):--ho-saknā (Potential), v.n. To be possible of accomplishment; to be possible, or practicable:--ho-guẕarnā, v.n. To come to pass;--to be finished or done, to be over (i.q. ho-jānā):--ho-lenā, v.n. (intens.) To be completed; to be perfected; to become thoroughly;--to be born;--to betake oneself, to go (in company with;--e.g. kisī-ke pīćhe ho-lenā, 'to go behind or after anyone,' 'to follow':--kisī-ke sāth, or saṅg ho-lenā, 'to go along with, or to accompany anyone'):--ho-nikalnā, v.n. To pass, pass by or near; to turn up (at or by):--honā-na-honā, s.m. The being or not being; existence and non-existence:--honā ho so ho, Happen what will or may;--neck or nothing:--hone-jog, adj. Fit or worthy to be or take place; likely to be or to happen; possible;--promising:--hone-kā (f. -kī), That is to be; future;--likely to be, possible:--hone-wālā, or hone-hārā, adj. (f. -ī), Being, existent, occurrent;--about to be, on the point of happening, impending, imminent; to be expected to result; eventual;--what is to be, or to happen, &c. (i.q. honhār, q.v.).

H هونسنا हौंसना hauṅsnā, or हूंसना hūṅsnā (fr. hauṅs), v.n. To be covetous; to be envious;--to cast an evil eye (upon, -ko).

H هونکنا हौंकना haūṅknā, (dialec.) होंकना hoṅknā (i.q. dhauṅknā, q.v.), v.n. To puff and blow; to breathe hard; to pant; to gasp.

H هہنانا हिहिनाना hihinānā, v.n. A dialec. form of hinhinānā, q.v.

H هيڐنا हीडना hīḍnā, v.t. (dialec. Mār.)=hernā, q.v.

H هيرانا हेराना herānā, v.t. causat. of hernā, q.v.

H هيرنا हेरना hernā [her˚ prob. for aher˚ = S. आखेट;--or perhaps akin to S. हृ; cf. also bhālnā], v.t. To see, observe; to look closely into; to spy out; to peer or pry into;--to look after; to search for; to hunt, chase, pursue;--to catch; to stop.

H هيلنا हीलना hīlnā, 1˚ v.t. (dialec.)=hilānā, q.v.;--2˚ v.n. (dialec. or a corr. form)=hilnā, q.v.

H هيلنا हेलना helnā (prob. akin to hilnā), v.n. To swim; to float.

H هينچنا हींचना hīṅćnā, v.t.=khīṅćnā, q.v.

H هينسنا हींसना hīṅsnā [hīṅs˚ = Prk. हीस(इ); S. हेष(ते), rt. हेष्], v.n. To neigh; to whinny; to make a noise as a horse when kicking; to scream; to bray.

H هينکارنا हींकारना hīṅkārnā [fr. S. हिङ्कार, rt. हिङ्कृ], v.n. To low (as cattle); to bellow, to roar.

H هينگانا हेंगाना heṅgānā [heṅgā+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā], v.t. To harrow.

H هيننا हीनना hīnnā, v.n. (dialec.)=hinhinānā, q.v.

urdU verbs (vAv) / उर्दू अफ़्`आल (व)

2008-04-22T14:43:00.001-05:00

This is a list of non-compound hindUstAnI verbs that have the vAv (و) of the fArsI alphabet as the first letter. See my earlier post "A Deluge of Verbs ...?" for a background. This list was generated by mining the online version of Platts' Dictionary, and is a verbatim copy of the entries therein. This list may not be exhaustive & complete.

50 non-compound verbs starting with the vAv are listed below.

H وادنا वाद्ना wādnā (prob. fr. S. वाद), v.n.=bādnā, q.v.

H وارنا वारना wārnā [wār˚ = Prk. वार(इ) or वारे(इ)=S. वारय(ति), caus. of rt. वृ], v.t. To surround, encompass, encircle; to go round;--to ward off, keep off; to avert (from. -se); to wave (anything) round or over (one) as a means of averting (evil, &c.), or as a votive offering; to offer (in sacrifice, &c.);--to devote oneself (for).

H واسنا वासना wāsnā, v.t.=bāsnā, q.v.

H وبهانا विभाना vibhānā [vibhā˚ = S. विभा(ति), rt. भा with वि], v.n. To shine or gleam forth; to become visible or manifest, to appear.

H وتانا विताना witānā, v.t. prop. بتانا bitānā, q.v.

H وترارنا वित्रारना witrārnā [witrār˚, prob.=S. वितारय(ति), caus. of rt. वि+तॄ], v.t. To carry safely through or over, to rescue, save, deliver.

H وٿوٿانا वटवटाना waṭwaṭānā, v.n. (dialec.) To talk nonsense, to prate, babble, jabber, gabble, clack.

H وچارنا विचारना wićārnā [wićār˚ = Prk. विचार(इ) or विचारे(इ)=S. विचारय(ति), caus. of वि+चर्], v.t. To think, consider, &c. (see bićārnā, the pop. form).

H وچلنا विचलना vićalnā [S. विचलनीयं, rt. वि+ चल्], v.n. To move about, to move to and fro; to move, shift, slip, become displaced; to waver, totter, to be unsteady; to turn, bend; to deviate, swerve (from), to go astray; to commit an infringement or violation (of, -se), to break one's promise.

H وچوچانا वचवचाना waćwaćānā [waćwaćā˚ = wać-wać, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि caus. aug. +nā], v.n. (dialec.) To babble, prate, twaddle, gabble, talk nonsense.

H ودارنا विदारना widārnā [widār˚ = Prk. विदार(इ), or विदारे(इ)=S. विदारय(ति), rt. वि+दॄ], v.t. To tear, rend, &c. (i.q. bidārnā, q.v.).

H ودرنا वदरना wadarnā (fr. wadar, q.v.), v.n. (Dakh.) To babble, jabber, prate, talk nonsense.

H ودرنا विदरना widarnā (see the trans. widārnā), v.n. To be torn or rent asunder; to burst open, to burst, split, go asunder.

H ودوشنا विदूषना widūshnā [widūsh˚ = S. विदूषय(ति), rt. वि+दुष्], v.t. To corrupt, defile, contaminate; to disgrace; to blame, censure, calumniate, revile, abuse.

H وراجنا विराजना wirājnā [wirāj˚ = S. विराज(ति), rt: राज् with वि], v.t. & v.n.=birājnā, q.v.

H ورچنا विरचना wiraćnā [wirać˚ = S. विरचय(ति), rt. वि+रच्], v.t. To arrange; to construct, contrive; to make, &c. (see viraćan, and biraćnā).

H ورشانا वर्षाना varshānā, v.t. See the pop. form barsānā.

H ورشنا वर्षना varshnā, v.n. See the pop. form barasnā.

H ورغلانا warg̠alānā, ورغلاننا warg̠alānna [fr. Pers. warg̠alānīdan = bar-g̠alān-īdan;--bar, prep. or prefix, q.v.+ g̠alān (with caus. aff.), fr. S. गर् (गृ, गरति); or घर् (घृ, घरति)], v.t. To deceive, inveigle, decoy, entice, seduce, tempt, incite, instigate, actuate, provoke, exasperate.

H ورننا वर्णना varṇnā [varṇ˚ = S. वर्णय(ति), fr. वर्णा], v.t. To explain, describe, relate, tell, narrate; to praise, extol (i.q. varṇan karnā).

H وستارنا विस्तारना wistārnā [wistār˚ = S. विस्तारय (ति), caus. of rt. वि+स्तृ], v.t. To spread, extend, enlarge, expand, diffuse, develop, &c. (i.q. bistārnā; vistār (or bistār) karnā; see vistār).

H وسرانا विसराना wisrānā, v.t.=bisrānā, q.v.

H وکسنا विकसना wikasnā, v.n.=بکسنا bikasnā, q.v.

H وکهالنا वखालना wakhālnā, v.t. dialec. forms of ukhāl, and ukhālnā, qq.v.

H ولاپنا विलापना wilāpnā (fr. vilāp), v.n. To weep, wail, &c. (i.q. vilāp karnā).

H ولاسنا विलासना wilāsnā (fr. vilās), v.n.=vilās karnā, q.v.

H ولسنا विलसना wilasnā, v.n.=بلسنا bilasnā, q.v.

H ولمبانا विलम्बाना wilambānā (caus. of wilambnā), v.t.=bilmānā, q.v.

H ولمبنا विलम्बना wilambnā [wilamb˚ = S. विलम्ब(ते)], v.n.=bilambnā, q.v.

H ولوڙنا विलोड़ना wiloṛnā [wiloṛ˚ = S. विलोडय(ति), caus. of rt. वि+लुड्], v.t.=biloṛnā, q.v. (and cf. viloḍan).

H ولوکنا विलोकना wiloknā [wilok˚ = S. विलोकय(ति), caus. of वि+लोक्], v.t.=biloknā, q.v.

H ولولانا walwalānā [walwala, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.) + nā = Prk. अणअं = S. अनीयं], v.n. To howl; wail, lament;--to low or bubble (as a camel, esp. when in rut), &c. (i.q. balbalānā, q.v.).

H ولوونا विलोवना wilownā, v.t.=wiloṛnā, or biloṛnā, q.v.

H ولہنا वलहना walahnā, s.m. & v.n. A dialec. form of ulahnā, q.v.

H وناشنا विनाशना wināśnā [wināś˚ = S. विनाशय (ति), caus. of rt. वि+नश्], v.t. To destroy, ruin, spoil, &c. (i.q. bināsnā, q.v.).

H ونسنا विनसना winasnā, v.n.=binasnā, q.v.

H ونشانا विनशाना winaśānā or winśānā (caus. of winaśnā = binasnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to deteriorate, &c.; to destroy, ruin, spoil.

H ونشنا विनशना winaśnā, v.n.=binasnā, q.v.

H وواهنا विवाहना wiwāhnā [wiwāh˚ = Prk. विवाह(इ), or विवाहे(इ)=S. विवाहय(ति), caus. of rt. विवह्], v.t. To marry, wed (i.q. byāhnā, q.v.).

H ووڙهنا वोढ़ना woṛhnā, v.t. A dialec. form of oṛhnā, q.v.

H وهانا विहाना wihānā v.t.=bihānā, q.v.

H وهرنا विहरना wiharnā [Prk. विहरणअं; S. विहरणीयं, rt. विहृ], v.n. To enjoy pleasure; to rejoice;--v.t. To take pleasure in, to enjoy;--to rejoice, delight.

H وهسنا विहसना wihasnā [wihas˚ = S. विहस(ति), rt. वि+हस्], v.n. To laugh gently, to smile, to laugh.

H وياپنا व्यापना vyāpnā [vyāp˚ = S. व्याप्नो(ति), rt. वि+ आप्; or व्यापय(ति), caus. of rt. व्याप्], v.t. & int.=byāpnā, q.v.

H وياونا व्यावना wyāwnā, v.t. & n. corr. of vyāpnā, q.v.

H وياهنا व्याहना vyāhnā, v.t.=byāhnā, q.v.

H ويدهنا वेधना wedhnā [wedh˚ = S. विध्य(ति), rt. व्यध्], v.t. To prick, puncture; to pierce, &c. (i.q. bedhnā, q.v.).

H ويرنا वैरना wairnā [wair˚ prob.=S. व्यर्दय(ति), caus. of rt. वि+अर्द], v.t. (dialec.) To pour gradually from the hand or a vessel (rice, &c. into boiling water, grist into a mill, grain into a pan, or seed into the ground, &c.); to sow by drill;--to grind;--s.m. The vessel from which the grist is poured gradually into the mill the hopper;--a drill.

H وينچنا वैंचना waiṅćnā [waiṅć˚ = S. व्यञ्च(ति), rt. वि+अञ्च्], v.t. To separate; to tear off, to flay, skin.

H وينچهنا वैंछना waiṅćhnā [waiṅć˚ = S. व्यञ्च(ति), rt. वि+अञ्च्], v.t. To separate; to tear off, to flay, skin.

urdU verbs (nUn) / उर्दू अफ़्`आल (न)

2008-04-22T14:27:00.002-05:00

This is a list of non-compound hindUstAnI verbs that have the nUn (ن) of the fArsI alphabet as the first letter. See my earlier post "A Deluge of Verbs ...?" for a background. This list was generated by mining the online version of Platts' Dictionary, and is a verbatim copy of the entries therein. This list may not be exhaustive & complete.

165 non-compound verbs starting with the nUn are listed below.

H ناپنا नापना nāpnā [nāpnā, prob. corr. of māpnā, q.v.; or nāp˚ = Prk. नप्प(इ)=S. ज्ञाप्य(ते), pass. of caus. of rt. ज्ञा], v.t. To measure; to weigh;--nāp-denā, or nāp-lenā, v.t. intens. of and=nāpnā:--rasta nāpnā, 'To measure the road'; to wander idly about, to saunter;--to pay a short (or a doctor's) visit.

H ناتهنا नाथना nāthnā [fr. nāth, q.v.; or nāth˚ = S. नस्तित], v.t. To bore the nose (of a bullock) and put a string in it (to guide him by);--to bring under subjection or control.

H ناٿنا नाटना nāṭnā, v.n.=naṭnā, q.v.

H ناچنا नाचना nāćnā [nāć˚ = Prk. नच्च(इ)=S. नृत्य (ति), rt. नृत्], v.n. To dance; to caper, or frisk about.

H نادنا नादना nādnā, v.t.=nādhnā, nāṅdnā, or nāṅdhnā, qq.v.

H نادهنا नाधना nādhnā [nādh˚ = S. नद्ध, p.p.p. of rt. नह्], v.t. To yoke;--to begin, to enter upon (also nāṅdhnā; nāṅdnā).

H ناسنا नासना nāsnā [nās˚ = Prk. नस्स(इ)=S. नश्य (ति), rt. नश्], v.n. To be lost, to disappear, vanish; to be destroyed; to perish; to wane;--to escape, flee, run away.

H ناسنا नासना nāsnā [nās˚ = Prk. नास(इ) or नासे(इ)=S. नाशय(ति), caus. of rt. नश्], v.t. To cause to disappear; to cause to perish; to destroy, ruin, efface, exterminate;--to lose.

H نامنا नामना nāmnā (fr. nām), v.t. To name, to mention; to praise, eulogize.

H نانا नाना nānā [nā˚ = nāw˚ = nawāw˚ = Prk. नवाव(इ), or नवावे(इ)=S. नमय(ति), caus. of rt. नम्], v.t. To bend; to bow (the head, &c.); to double, to fold;--to pour (in or out).

H نانچنا नांचना nāṅćnā, v.n. i.q. nāć, and nāćnā, qq.v.

H ناندنا नांदना nāṅdnā [Prk. नंदणअं; S. नन्दनीयं, rt. नन्द्], v.n. (dialec.) To continue happily or comfortably (with, or at, or in); to stay long and well; to become happily settled or domesticated (with, or at); to pass life, to live, dwell, reside, abide;--to go happily through to the end.

H ناندنا नांदना nāṅdnā (i.q. nādnā, or nādhnā, q.v.), v.t. To begin.

H ناندهنا नांधना nāṅdhnā (i.q. nādnā, or nādhnā, q.v.), v.t. To begin.

H نانگهنا नांघना nāṅghnā [nāṅgh˚ = lāṅgh˚ = Prk. लंघ(इ)=S. लङ्घ(ति), rt. लङ्घ], v.t. To jump, or leap, over or across; to step across, to cross; to pass over or beyond, to pass, transgress, infringe.

H ناونا नावना nāwnā, v.t.=nānā, or nawānā, qq.v.

H نبارنا निबारना nibārnā, v.t.=نوارنا niwārnā, q.v.

H نباڙنا निबाड़ना nibāṛnā [nibāṛ˚ = Prk. निव्वाड(इ) or निव्वाडे(इ)=S. निर्वाटय(ति), caus. of rt. निर् + वट्], v.t. To separate, divide; to adjust, settle, decide; to accomplish, perform, manage, fulfil, carry through, keep (an engagement, &c.); to end; to spend, to consume.

H نباهنا निबाहना nibāhnā [nibāh˚ = Prk. निव्वाह इ) or निव्वाहे(इ)=S. निर्वाहय(ति), caus. of rt. निर् +वह्], v.t. To carry on or through, to conduct, manage, &c. (see nibāh, and nibāh karnā);--to take care of, to protect, guard; to support, maintain;--v. int. To keep faith (with); to deal (with), to act or behave (towards);--to afford;--to wear, last, endure.

H نبٿانا निबटाना nibṭānā (i.q. nipṭānā, q.v.), v.t. To settle, adjust, decide, &c. (see nipṭānā):--nibṭā-denā, v.t. intens. of and=nibṭānā.

H نبٿنا निबटना nibaṭnā, v.n. = nipaṭnā, and nibaṛnā, qq.v.

H نبڙنا निबड़ना nibaṛnā [nibaṛ˚ = Prk. निव्वड(इ) or निव्वडे(इ); S. निर्वटय(ति), rt. निर् + वट्;--or nibaṛnā = nibaṭnā = nipaṭnā, q.v.], v.n. To be separated, or divided; to be settled, be adjusted, be decided; to be accomplished; to be completed, or finished; to be ended, be spent, be consumed:--nibaṛ-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=nibaṛnā.

H نبکنا निबुकना nibuknā [nibuk˚ = S. निर्मुक्त, p.p.p. of निर्+मुच्], v.t. (dialec.) To loosen, to set free, liberate; to separate; to sunder, disjoin (syn. ćhuṛānā);--v.n. To come out (of); to be loosed, or set free (from), to escape, &c. (i.q. nikalnā).

H نبنا निबना nibnā, v.n. (colloq.)=nibhnā, q.v.

H نبهانا निभाना nibhānā, v.t.=نباهنا nibāhnā, q.v.

H نبہنا निबहना nibahnā, v.n.=nibhnā, q.v.

H نبهنا निभना nibhnā (fr. the trans. nibāhnā, q.v.), v.n. To be accomplished, or performed, or effected; to succeed;--to serve, do, pass; to live, subsist, eke out a livelihood; to last, continue, endure.

H نبيڙنا निबेड़ना nibeṛnā, (rustic) नबेड़ना nabeṛnā [nibeṛ˚ = Prk. निव्वंड(इ)=S. निर्वण्ड(ते), rt. निर्+ वण्ड्; cf. nibāṛnā, of which nibeṛnā is another form], v.t. To separate, divide; to accomplish; to settle, adjust, decide; to complete, finish, terminate, put an end to; to spend, consume:--apnī nibeṛnā, To mind one's own business.

H نپاتنا निपातना nipātnā [nipāt˚ = S. निपातय(ति), caus. or rt. नि+पत्], v.t. To throw or cast down; to fell, to knock down, beat down; to overthrow, kill, destroy.

H نپاٿنا निपाटना nipāṭnā, v.t. (rustic or dialec.)=nipṭānā, q.v.

H نپٿانا निपटाना nipṭānā [caus. of nipaṭnā;--nipṭā˚ = niptāw = Prk. निप्पट्टआवे(इ) = S. निष्पत्(ति)+ आपय (caus. aug.)], v.t. To complete, finish, conclude, terminate, end; to decide, settle, adjust, compose.

H نپٿنا निपटना nipaṭnā [nipaṭ˚ = Prk. निप्पट्ट(इ), or निप्पट्टे(इ), fr. S. निष्पत्ति, rt. निस्+पद्], v.n. To be completed, or finished; to be concluded, or terminated; to terminate, to end; to be accomplished; to be settled, or adjusted, or decided;--to be spent, or consumed, or exhausted;--to be clear, or rid (of, -se), to have done (with).

H نپنا नपना napnā (fr. the trans. nāpnā, q.v.), v.n. To be measured; to be surveyed;--(colloq.) to measure oneself (with, or against), to have a quarrel, or a tussle (with, e.g. āj un-se ḵẖūb napī):--nap-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=napnā.

H نپوڙنا निपोड़ना nipoṛnā, v.t. To show (the teeth); to grin; to snarl; to grind or gnash (the teeth).

H نتارنا नितारना nitārnā, v.t. (dialec.) = نتهارنا nithārnā, q.v.

H نتهارنا निथारना nithārnā [nithār˚ = Prk. नित्थाल(इ), or नित्थाले(इ)=S. निस्थलय(ति), caus. of नि+स्थल्; or=S. निस्तारय(ति), caus. of rt. निस्+तॄ], v.t. To make clear or clean, to purify (water, or other liquid, by letting the feculent matter subside and pouring off the clear water, &c.); to pour off; to draw off (an infusion, &c.).

H نتهرنا निथरना nitharnā (fr. the trans. nithārnā, q.v.), v.n. To be made clear or clean, to be purified (water or other liquid, by letting the feculent matter subside, and pouring off the clear liquid).

H نتهنا नथना nathnā (fr. the trans. nāthnā, q.v.), v.n. To have the nose bored, and a string passed through it (a bullock).

H نٿنا नटना naṭnā [naṭ˚ = nāṭ˚ = S. नास्ति 'it is not'+nā = anā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v. int. To say 'no' (with respect to, -se), to deny, disallow, disclaim, disown; to decline, refuse.

H نٿنا नटना naṭnā [naṭ˚ = Prk. नट्ट(इ) or नट्टे(इ)=S. नर्तय(ति), fr. नर्त], v.n. To dance;--to strut, or mince;--to act or perform; to assume a dramatic dress or character.

H نٿيرنا नटेरना naṭernā [naṭer˚, prob.=S. नष्ट+कार], v.t. To turn up (the eyes), to close (the eyes, in death).

H نجهانا निझाना nijhānā [nijhā˚ = Prk. निज्झाअ(इ), or णिज्झा(इ)=S. निध्याय(ति), rt. नि+ध्यै], v.t. To see, perceive, observe, behold, look at attentively; to spy out; to pry into.

H نجهوٿنا निझोटना nijhoṭnā [nijhoṭ˚ = Prk. णिज्झोड(इ)], v.t. To twitch, &c. (i.q. jhaṭaknā, and khasoṭnā, qq.v.

H نچانا नचाना naćānā [caus. of nāćnā, q.v.;--naćā˚ =naćāw˚ = Prk. नञ्चावे(इ)=S. नृत्य+caus. aug. आपय(ति)], v.t. To cause to dance to make (one) dance, to set a-dancing; to spin (a top, &c.):--naćā-mārnā, v.t. To lead (one) a pretty dance; to tease, worry, harass (here naćā is the past conj. part. of naćānā).

H نچرنا निचरना nićarnā, v.n. (dialec.)=nićaṛnā, q.v.

H نچڙانا निचड़ाना nićaṛānā, or निचु़ड़ाना nićuṛāna, v.t.=nićuṛwānā, q.v.

H نچڙنا निचड़ना nićaṛnā, or निचुड़ना nićuṛnā [nićaṛ˚ = Prk. णिञ्चल(इ)=S. निश्चर(ति), rt. निस्+चर्], v.n. To flow out gently, to trickle, ooze, drop, distil;--to be squeezed or pressed; to be wrung (see nićoṛnā).

H نچڙوانا निचड़वाना nićaṛwānā, or निचुड़वाना nićuṛwānā (doub. caus. of nićaṛnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to flow, or trickle, &c.;--to have or get (water, &c.) wrung out, or strained, &c.;--to cause to wring, or press, or strain, &c.

H نچنا नचना naćnā, v.n.=nāćnā, q.v.

H نچنا नुचना nućnā (fr. the trans. noćnā, q.v.), v.n. To be scratched, or clawed, or pinched; to be plucked or pulled;--v.t.=noćnā, q.v.

H نچوانا नचवाना naćwānā (doub. caus. of nāćnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to be danced;--also=naćānā, q.v.

H نچوانا नुचवाना nućwānā (doub. caus. of noćnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to be scratched, or pinched, &c.;--to cause to scratch, or pinch, &c.

H نچورنا निचोरना nićornā, v.t. (dialec.)=nićoṛnā, q.v.

H نچوڙانا निचोड़ाना nićoṛānā, v.t. prop. نچڙانا nićuṛānā = نچڙوانا nićaṛwānā, q.v.

H نچوڙنا निचोड़ना nićoṛnā [caus. of nićuṛnā, a dialec. form of nićaṛnā;--nićoṛ˚ = nićāṛ˚ = Prk. निच्चाले(इ)=S. निश्चारय(ति), caus. of rt. निस्+चर्], v.t. 'To cause to issue or come forth'; to press or squeeze, to wring; to press out, to express; to strain; to wring out, to extort, exact;--to milk:--nićoṛ-lenā, v.t. intens. of and=nićoṛnā.

H نچوڙوانا निचोड़वाना nićoṛwānā, v.t. prop. نچڙوانا nićurwānā, q.v.

H ندانا निदाना nidānā [nidā˚ = Prk. निद्दा(इ)=S. निर्दा(ति), rt. निस्+दा or दो], v.t. To weed, to clear;--to cut, reap.

H ندرنا निदरना nidarnā, v.t. (dialec.) To treat with disrespect, or contempt, &c. (i.q. nirādar karnā, q.v.).

H نرانا निराना nirānā, or नराना narānā (cf. nidānā, of which it is prob. another form), v.t. To clear, to w eed (a garden, &c.); to reap (a harvest).

H نرباهنا निरबाहना nir-bāhna, v.t. (dialec.)=nibāhnā, q.v.

H نرتنا निर्तना nirtnā, or निरतना niratnā [nirt˚ = S. नृत्य(ति), rt. नृत्], v.n. (dialec.) To dance; to caper skip, jump about playfully; to gesticulate, to play (i.q. nirt karnā;--syn. nāćnā).

H نرکهنا निरखना nirakhnā [nirakh˚ = Prk. निरिक्ख(इ), or निरक्ख(इ)(?); S. निरीक्ष(ते), rt. निस्+ईक्ष्], v.t. To look at, see, regard, observe, view; to inspect, scan, examine closely.

H نرمانا नरमाना narmānā [narm, q.v. + ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment) + nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To soften; to mollify, soothe, appease, pacify, mitigate, assuage; to subdue;--to moderate, reduce, lower, abate, lessen (as a price, &c.):--nar-mānā, or narmā-janā, v.n. To become soft, to soften;--to become gentle, or mild; to be subdued;--to relax, abate, lower, lessen.

H نرمانا निर्माना or निरमाना nirmānā [nirmā˚ = S. निर्मा(ति), rt. मा with निस्], v.t. To make, form, fashion, fabricate; to produce, create; to build, construct; to compose.

H نروارنا निरुआरना niruʼārnā [niruʼār˚ = Prk. निरुवार(इ), fr. S. व्याकृ with निस्], v.t. (dialec.) To undo, unravel, disentangle, &c. (syn. kholnā; suljhānā).

H نروانا निरुवाना niruwānā, v.t. (dialec.) = نروارنا niruʼārnā, q.v.

H نريکهنا निरीखना nirīkhnā, or निरेखना nirekhnā [nirīkh˚ or nirekh˚ = Prk. निरिक्ख(इ)=S. निरीक्ष(ते), rt. ईक्ष् with निस्], v.t. & n. To look at or towards, to behold, gaze at, regard, observe, view;--to look out, to spy;--to consider, inspect;--to expect, hope for (i.q. nirakhnā, q.v.).

H نسارنا निसारना nisārnā [caus. of nisarnā;--nisār˚ = Prk. निस्सारे(इ) or निस्सार(इ)=S. निःसारयति), caus. of rt. निस्+सृ], v.t. To cause to go out or away, to turn out, eject, expel; to cause to issue or come forth.

H نسانا नसाना nasānā, (corr.) निसाना nisānā [nasā˚ = Prk. नस्सावे(इ) or नस्साव(इ)=S. नश्य(ति)+caus. aug. आपय], v.t. 'To cause to be lost or to perish'; to destroy, efface, annihilate; to spoil; to squander;--v.n. To be lost; to be destroyed, be annihilated; to perish, to come to nought.

H نساونا नसावना nasāwnā, or nasāʼonā, v.t. & n.=nasānā, q.v.

H نستارنا निस्तारना nistārnā [nistār˚ = S. निस्तारय(ति), caus. of rt. निस्+तॄ], v.t. To liberate, release, acquit; to rescue, save, deliver;--to exempt (the soul) from further transmigration, to beatify;--to discharge, pay off (a debt, &c.), to requite.

H نسرنا निसरना nisarnā (nisar˚ = Prk. निस्सर(इ) or नीसर(इ)=S. निःसर(ति), rt. निस् + सृ], v.n. To come out or forth, to issue; to go out or forth; to depart.

H نسنا नसना nasnā [nas˚ = Prk. नस्स(इ)=S. नश्य(ति), rt. नश्], v.n. (dialec.) To disappear, vanish, make off, escape, run away, flee.

H نشانا नशाना naśānā, v.t. & n., corr. or dialec. form of nasānā, q.v.

H نکارنا नकारना nakārnā [न 'no' + kār˚ = Prk. कारे(इ)=S. कारय(ति), caus. of rt. कृ], v.t. To deny; to refuse, to reject.

H نکارنا निकारना nikārnā, v.t. (dialec. or rustic)=nikālnā, q.v.

H نکاسنا निकासना nikāsnā [nikās˚ = Prk. निक्कासे(इ), or निक्कास(इ); S.निष्कासय(ति), caus. of rt. निस्+ कस्, prob. a Prk. form fr. कृष्], v.t. To turn out, drive out, to expel;--to take ont, to extract, &c.; to wrest, &c. (i.q. nikālnā, q.v.):--nikās-lenā, v.t. intens. of and=nikāsnā.

H نکالنا निकालना nikālnā [nikāl˚ = Prk. निक्काले(इ), or निक्काल(इ), fr. निक्काल=निक्कल्ह=निक्कड्ढ=S. निष्कृष्ट, p.p.p. of rt. निस्+कृष्;--or Prk. निक्काले(इ) = S. निष्कालय(ति), rt. निस्+कल्], v.t To pull or draw out; to take out (of, -se); to extract; to express; to distil;--to extricate;--to pick out, select;--to unpick, undo;--to strike out, to remove (from, -se), to take off; to deduct; to exclude, except (more com. nikāl denā or ḍālnā);--to drive out, turn out, eject, expel; to cashier; to put away, cast off, discard; (more com. nikāl denā); to dig out;--to beat out; to thresh (corn);--to bring out or forth, to produce;--to hatch;--to issue, publish;--to deduce;--to work out, solve (a problem, &c.); to accomplish, effect;--to find out, discover; to invent;--to put or bring forth; to give vent to;--to make manifest, to exhibit, display, show, to bring out (a procession);--to strike (a balance);--to break in, to train (a horse);--to let out, allow to escape, to utter, give utterance to:--nikāl-denā, v.t. (intens.) To drive out, eject, expel, &c.;--to take out; deduct; exclude, &c. (i.q. nikālnā):--nikāl-ḍālnā, v.t. (intens.) To take out, or away; to remove; to strike out, &c.:--nikāl-rakhnā, v.t. To lay or put by:--nikāl-lānā (-ko), To bring off, bring away; to abduct:--nikāl-lenā, v.t. intens. of and=nikālnā:--nikāl-le-jānā (-ko), To carry off; to steal; to make away with;--to abduct.

H نکانا निकाना nikānā (prob. another form of nikārnā or nikālnā), v.t. To weed;--to pick (with the nails).

H نکرنا निकरना nikarnā, v.n. (dialec.)=nikalnā, q.v.

H نکسنا निकसना nikasnā, (corr.) नकसना nakasnā [nikas˚ = Prk. निक्कस(इ)=S. निष्कस(ति), rt. निस् +कस्; see the trans. nikāsnā], v.n. To go out; to come out, to issue, &c. (i.q. nikalnā, q.v.).

H نکشنا नकशना nakaśnā, v.n. A dialec. or a corr. form of nikasnā, q.v.

H نکلانا निकलाना niklānā, v.t.=nikālnā, and nikalwānā, qq.v.

H نکلنا निकलना nikalnā (fr. the trans. nikālnā, q.v.), v.n. To be pulled or drawn out, to be taken out; to be expressed; to be extracted; to be extricated (from, -se);--to be deduced;--to be produced; to be invented;--to be hatched (eggs);--to be performed, or accomplished, or effected;--to be worked out, be solved;--to come out or forth, to issue, to emerge; to appear; to rise (as the sun); to germinate, to shoot;--to begin;--to come out or appear as a balance (to the credit of, -ke taʼīṅ, or against, -par, or -ke nām);--to result, prove, turn out;--to sally forth;--to find vent; to find utterance, to be uttered;--to go away, to depart, to proceed; to pass away (as life, or time); to secede;--to get out, to escape; to slink away, to give (one) the slip; to break loose (from, -se);--to go back (from a promise), to get out (of an engagement); to slip, to start (from its place); to spring (in these last senses, beginning with 'to go away,' the more com. form is nikal-jānā):--nikal-ānā, v.n. To come out, or forth; to appear; to rise (the sun, &c.):--nikal-bhāgnā, v.n. To run off or away, make off; to break (from); to get away, to escape:--nikal-paṛnā, v.n. To come out or forth (from, -se); to be drawn out or forth;--to drop out, fall out:--nikal-jānā, v.n. To go forth or away; to get away, to escape, &c. (i.q. nikalnā, q.v.); to disappear;--to wear out;--to advance, go on; to pass or get (beyond, -se), to outstrip, surpass; to exceed:--nikal-ćalnā, v.n. To go out or forth; to make off, to escape;--to be advanced, be promoted;--to pass or get (beyond), to surpass; to outstrip;--to break forth, to begin (speech, &c.); to speak much, or to display (one's) talent (said of one who before, owing to the presence of a stranger, or to some other restraining cause, had been silent).

H نکلوانا निकलवाना nikalwānā (caus. of nikālnā), v.t. To cause to go or come out; to cause to issue; to turn out, dismiss, eject, expel:--nikalwā-denā, v.t. To turn out (from, -se); to dismiss (from office); to eject, expel, banish.

H نکوسنا निकोसना nikosnā [nikos˚ = निक्कोस्से(इ) or निक्कोस्स(इ)=S. निकुस्मय(ते), fr. the nom. निकुस्मय, rt. नि+कु+स्मि], v.t. & intr. To show (the teeth, as an animal);--to grin.

H نکهارنا निखारना nikhārnā [caus. of nikharnā;--nikhār˚ = Prk. निक्खारे(इ) or निक्खार(इ)=S. निक्षारय (ति), caus. of rt. नि+क्षर्], v.t. To clean, to clear; to clarify;--to strain;--to bleach;--to peel, to skin;--to settle.

H نکهرانا निखराना nikharānā, or nikhrānā (caus. of nikhārnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to clean, &c.;--also=nikharwānā, q.v.;--(caus. of nikharnā), v.t.=nikhārnā, q.v.

H نکهرنا निखरना nikharnā [nikhar˚ = Prk. निक्खर(इ)=S. निक्षर(ति), rt. नि+क्षर], v.n. To be cleaned, be cleared; to be settled; to be clarified; to be strained;--to be peeled; to be skinned;--to settle; to become clear, to clear (as the complexion, or the sky, &c.);--to become composed, or serene;--to look angrily (at, -par).

H نکهروانا निखरवाना nikharwānā (doub. caus. of nikharnā), v.t. To cause to be cleaned, &c.; to have (or get) cleaned, or cleared, &c.

H نکهورنا निखोरना nikhornā, v.t. (dialec.) = nikhoṛnā, q.v.

H نکهوڙنا निखोड़ना nikhoṛnā [nikhoṛ˚ = Prk. निक्खोड (इ), for निक्कोड्ढ(इ), from निक्कोड्ढ=S. निष्कुष्ट, p.p.p. of निस्+कुष्], v.t. To pull or tear off or out; to strip off; to extract; to peel; to decorticate; to skin, flay; to excoriate; to husk, shell; to clean.

H نکهوسنا निखोसना nikhosnā, v. int.=nikosnā, q.v.

H نکهيانا नखियाना nakhiyānā, or निखयाना nikhyānā [nakhiyā˚ = nakhī (=S. nakha+ikā)+ā = āw = Prk. आवे or आव=S. आपि (caus. aug.)], v.t. To scratch, to claw.

H نکيانا नकियाना nakiyānā, v.t. corr. of nakhiyānā, q.v.

H نگچانا नगचाना nagćānā [nagćā˚ = nagić = nagīć, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आवे or आव=S. आपि (caus. aug.) + nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To draw near, to approach.

H نگلنا निगलना nigalnā [nigal˚ = Prk. निगले(इ), or निगल(इ), fr. S. noun निगल;--or fr. S. निगिल(ति), rt. नि+गॄ, by change of i to a], v.t. To swallow, swallow up; to gulp down; to devour;--(met.) to embezzle:--nigal-jānā (-ko), intens. of and=nigalnā.

H نگندنا निगन्दना nigandnā [nigand˚, perhaps=S. निग्रन्थ(ति), but most prob. fr. the P. nigandan = nikandan, rt. Zend kan with ni; S. निखन्], v.t. To quilt;--to sew with long stitches.

H نگهٿنا निघटना nighaṭnā (pref. ni+ghaṭnā, q.v.), v.n. (dialec.) To be greatly diminished, to be much less, &c.

H نلانا नलाना nalānā, v.t. (dialec.) = narānā, or nirānā, q.v.

H نمٿنا निमटना nimaṭnā, v.n.=nibaṭnā, q.v.

H نمنا नमना namnā [S. नमनीयं, rt. नम्], v.n. To bow down; to make obeisance (to).

H نمنانا निमनाना nimnānā [nimnā˚ = niman, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आवे or आव=S. आपि (caus. aug.) + nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To render strong, or tight, or good; to strengthen;--to ameliorate.

H نندانا नंदाना naṅdānā (caus. of nāṅdnā, q.v.), v.t. (dialec.) To cause to pass life happily, &c.

H نندرنا निंदरना niṅdarnā, v.t. (dialec.)=nidarnā, q.v.

H نندنا निन्दना nindnā [Prk. निंदणअं; S. निन्दनीयं, rt. निन्द्], v.t. To blame, &c. (i.q. ninda karna, q.v.).

H نندهنا नंधना naṅdhnā, v.t.=nāṅdhnā, q.v.

H ننگلانا निंगलाना niṅglānā (caus. of next, q.v.), v.t. To cause to swallow, &c.

H ننگلنا निंगलना niṅgalnā, v.t. To swallow, &c. (=nigalnā, q.v.).

H ننگهانا नंघाना naṅghānā (for laṅghānā, caus. of laṅghnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to leap over, &c.

H ننگيانا नंगियाना naṅgiyānā [naṅgiyā˚ = naṅgī (fem. of naṅgā)+ā = āw = Prk. आवे or आव=S. आपि, caus. aug.], To render naked, or bare; to strip (i.q. naṅgā karnā):--naṅgiyā-lenā, v.t. intens. of and=naṅgiyānā.

H نواجنا नवाजना nawājnā, or निवाजना niwājnā (corr. of nawāznā, q.v.), v.t. (dialec.) To caress, to coax; to wheedle, entice, decoy;--to have mercy on.

H نوارنا निवारना niwārnā, or नवारना nawārnā [niwār˚ = Prk. निवारे(इ) or निवार(इ)=S. निवारय(ति), caus. of rt. नि+वृ], v.t. To surround; to keep off, ward off; to exclude, to shut out; to protect, defend;--to prohibit, forbid, interdict;--to prevent, hinder, impede, obstruct, interrupt; to check, restrain; to oppose.

H نوارنا नवारना nawārnā [nawār˚, prob. = Prk. निवट्ट(इ)=S. निवर्त(ते), rt. नि+वृत्], v.n. To walk out or forth, to roam, stroll; to travel; to wander, stray.

H نوازنا nawāznā [nawāz, q.v. + ना = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To caress, soothe, comfort; to cherish; to favour, patronize;--to pardon.

H نواسنا निवासना niwāsnā (fr. nivās), v.n.=nivās karnā, q.v.

H نوانا नवाना nawānā, or निवाना niwānā [nawā˚ = nawāw˚ = Prk. नवावे(इ) or नवाव(इ)=S. नम + आपय(ति), rt. नम् with caus. aug. āpaya], v.t. To bend, to bow;--to cause to stoop;--to cause to submit to;--to double, to fold.

H نواونا नवावना nawāwnā, or nawāʼonā, or निवावना niwāwnā, or niwāʼonā, v.t.=nawānā, or niwānā, q.v.

H نواهنا निवाहना niwāhnā, v.t.=nibāhnā, q.v.

H نوتنا नौतना nautnā, or नोतना notnā [neʼotnā;--neʼot˚ = Prk. निमत्ते(इ) or निवत्ते(इ)=S. निमन्त्रय(ते), rt. मन्त्र् with नि], v.t. To invite (to a feast or entertainment);--to promise a gift to.

H نوٿانا निवटाना niwṭānā, v.t.=nibṭānā, q.v.

H نوچنا नोचना noćnā, (dialec.) नौचना naućnā [noć˚ = Prk. निउंच(इ)=S. निकुञ्च(ति), rt. नि+कुञ्च्], v.t. To pinch, to grip; to scratch, claw;--to pull out, pluck out (these meanings point to the S. lunć as their source);--to fleece (a person).

H نوڙيا निवड़ाना niwaṛānā, niwṛānā (caus. of next), v.t. (dialec.)=nauṛhānā.

H نوڙنا निवड़ना niwaṛnā, v.n. (dialec.)=nauṛhnā, q.v.

H نوڙهانا नौढ़ाना nauṛhānā (caus. of next), v.t. To bow; to bend;--to cause to stoop;--to render submissive or obedient; to subdue.

H نوڙهنا नौढ़ना nauṛhnā (i.q. nihuṛnā, q.v.), v.n. To incline downwards; to bend; to stoop;--to condescend;--to be subdued; to submit, &c.

H نوسنا निवसना niwasnā, v.n.=niwāsnā, q.v.

H نونا नवना nawnā, or नौना naunā, (dialec.) निवना niwnā [naw˚ or nau˚ = Prk. नम(इ) or नव(इ)=S. नम(ति), rt. नम्], v.n. To bow, bend, bend down, incline downwards; to stoop;--to submit, to become obedient or tractable.

H نونا नौना naunā, or नोना nonā (i.q. nawnā), v.t. To tie the feet of a cow when milking;--s.m. The string with which a cow's legs are tied at the time of milking (syn. nawī; nainā).

H نونتنا नौंतना nauṅtnā, v.t.=notnā, q.v.

H نوهڙنا नौहड़ना nauhṛnā, v.n. (dialec.)=nauṛhnā, q.v.

H نوهنا निवहना niwahnā, v.n.=nibahnā = nibhnā, q.v.

H نهاٿنا न्हाटना nhāṭnā, or नहाटना nahāṭnā [nhāṭ˚ = Prk. एहट्ट(इ), fr. S. स्नुस्त, p.p.p. of rt. स्नुस्], v.n. (dialec.) To vanish, disappear, flee, run away; to abscond; to desert.

H نہارنا निहारना nihārnā [Ap. Prk. णिहाल(इ); Prk. निहाले(इ) or निहाल(इ)=S. निभालय(ति), rt. नि+भल्], v.t. To look at, to behold closely or attentively, to gaze at, to regard; to look after, to watch; to spy.

H نہانا नहाना nahānā, or न्हाना nhānā [nahā˚ = Prk. ण्हा(इ)=S. स्ना(ति), rt. स्ना], v.n. To bathe; to wash; to perform ablutions:--nahānā-dhonā, v.n. =nahānā.

H نهانٿنا न्हांटना nhāṅṭnā, v.n.=nhāṭnā, q.v.

H نہرانا निहुराना nihurānā (caus. of nihurnā), v.t. (dialec.)=nihuṛānā, q.v.

H نہرنا निहुरना nihurnā, v.n. (dialec.)=nihuṛnā, q.v.

H نہڙانا निहुड़ाना nihuṛānā (caus. of nihuṛnā, q.v.), v.t. To bend, to bow; to cause to crook; to cause to stoop;--to render submissive or obedient (i.q. nauṛhānā):--nihurā-lenā, v.t. intens. of and=nihuṛānā.

H نہڙنا निहुड़ना nihuṛnā [nihuṛ˚ = Ap. Prk. णिहुड(इ), for Prk. नवड(इ), fr. नव(इ)=S. नम(ति), with addition of dim. aff. ड (cf. dauṛnā); but said in H. C.'s Prk. Gr. iv. 22, to be a substitute for S. नि+पत्; cf. nihoṛnā, fr. Prk. णिहोड(इ)], v.n. To incline or bend down, ward, to bend, bow;--to decline;--to condescend;--to submit; to be subdued.

H نہلانا नहलाना nahlānā, निहलाना nihlānā, or न्हलाना nhalānā (caus. of nahānā), v.t. To cause to bathe; to bathe, to give (one) a bath:--nahlānā-dhulānā, v.t.=nahlānā.

H نہلوانا नहलवाना nahalwānā, or निहलवाना nihalwānā, or न्हलवाना nhalwānā (doub. caus. of nahānā), v.t. To cause to be bathed or washed, to have or get (one) bathed.

H نہنا नहना nahnā (fr. the trans. nahānā, q.v.), v.n. To flow; to stream.

H نہنا नहना nahnā [nah˚ = S. नह्य(ति), rt. नह्], v.t. (dialec.) To bind, tie, fasten, bind on, &c. (a word com. used in Bundelkhand).

H نہوانا नहवाना nahwānā (caus. of nahānā), v.t. (dialec.)=nahlānā, q.v.

H نہورنا निहूरना nihūrnā, or नहूरना nahūrnā, v.t. (dialec.)=nihūṛnā, q.v.

H نہوڙنا निहूड़ना nihūṛnā, or निहोड़ना nihoṛnā [caus. of nihuṛnā, and=Prk. निहोड(इ); see nihuṛnā], v.t. To cause to bend, or stoop, &c.; to bend; to render humble or submissive, &c. (i.q. nihurānā; nauṛhānā).

H نيجانا नैजाना nai-jānā, v.n. intens. form of nainā, q.v.

H نيدنا नीदना nīdnā, v.n. To sleep (i.q. nīṅdnā, q.v.).

H نيرانا नियराना niyarānā, or नेराना nerānā [niyar or ner, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आवे or आव=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. (dialec.) To draw nigh, to approach (syn. nagćānā).

H نيرنا नीरना nīrnā [fr. S. नीर 'water'], To water;--to provide with food.

H نيڙنا नेड़ना neṛnā (prob. fr. neṛ = ner or niyar, q.v.), v.t. To keep near (one), or under (one's) care, to care for, to look after.

H نيسرنا नीसरना nīsarnā, v.n.=nisarnā, q.v.

H نينا नैना nainā, v.n. A dialec. form of nauna or nawnā, 'to bend,' q.v.:--nai-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=nainā.

H نيندنا नींदना nīṅdnā [nīṅd˚ = Prk. निद्दा(इ)=S. निद्रा(ति), rt. निद्रा], v.n. To fall asleep; to sleep, to repose.

H نيندنا नींदना nīṅdnā [nīṅd˚, prob.=S. निन्हु(ते), rt. नि+न्हु], v.t. To disown, to deny.

H نيندنا नींदना nīṅdnā, v.t.=نندنا nindnā, 'to blame,' &c., q.v.

H نيوارنا नेवारना newārnā, v.t.=niwārnā, q.v.

H نيوانا नेवाना newānā, v.t.=niwānā, or nawānā, q.v.

H نيوتانا नेवताना newatānā, or न्योताना nyotānā v.t.=nautnā, q.v.

H نيوتنا नेवतना newatnā, or न्योतना nyotnā v.t.=nautnā, q.v.

H نيوڙانا न्योड़ाना nyoṛānā, v.t. (dialec.) = nauṛhānā, or nihuṛānā, qq.v.

H نيوڙنا न्योड़ना nyoṛnā v.n. (dialec.) = nauṛhnā, or nihuṛnā, qq.v.

H نيوڙهنا न्योढ़ना nyoṛhnā v.n. (dialec.) = nauṛhnā, or nihuṛnā, qq.v.

H نيونا नेवना newnā, or neʼonā, v.n. (dialec.) = niwnā = nawnā, q.v.

urdU verbs (mIm) / उर्दू अफ़्`आल (म)

2008-04-21T09:43:00.001-05:00

This is a list of non-compound hindUstAnI verbs that have the mIm (م) of the fArsI alphabet as the first letter. See my earlier post "A Deluge of Verbs ...?" for a background. This list was generated by mining the online version of Platts' Dictionary, and is a verbatim copy of the entries therein. This list may not be exhaustive & complete.

197 non-compound verbs starting with the mIm are listed below.

H ماپنا मापना māpnā [māp˚ = Prk. माप्प(इ)=S. माप्य(ते), caus. pass. fr. rt. मा (used actively)+nā = अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To measure; to survey:--māp-lenā, v.t. intens. of and=māpnā:--māpne-wālā, s.m. A measurer, a surveyor.

H ماتنا मातना mātnā [māt˚ = Prk. मत्त(इ), fr. S. मत्त, p.p.p. fr. rt. मद्], v.n. To be intoxicated or drunk;--to be puffed up (with pride).

H مارنا मारना mārnā [mār˚ = Prk. मार(इ), or मारे(इ)=S. मारय(ति), caus. of rt. मृ;+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To beat, strike, thump, smite; to hit, knock; to punish;--to kill, slay, slaughter; to destroy, ruin, mar, spoil, blight, blast; to crack, break; to deaden or blunt (the edge of a knife, &c.); to destroy the active qualities of, to kill (quicksilver, lead, &c.), to calcine;--to strike out; to thrust out;--to attack (villages, houses, or travellers); to rob or seize with assault (i.e. with killing, or personal violence), to plun der; to embezzle; to withhold wrongfully;--to earn smartly and cleverly; to make (profit in business);--to stop, close; to fine;--to overcome, conquer, vanquish, defeat; to seize, take, capture, catch; to master subdue tame, mortify (affections, appetites, or lusts); to calm, quench, allay, suppress, smother; to counteract (poison, &c.);--to press down; to stamp;--to drive; to drive or ram in; to insert; to apply, fix, fasten, clap on;--to set; to throw, to pelt with, to cast (a spell); to toss; to shoot, discharge, fire (a gun), dart or hurl (a missile), lay on (a sword, &c.); to fight (a battle); to strike or make (a sudden assault); to strike up (a run, dance, strain, &c.); to strike out (the hands or legs); to pitch (a tent); to chuck in, or toss off (a morsel); to raise or set up (a cry); to make or do (generally with vehemence, eagerness, or smartness);--(as a gerund) s.m. Striking, beating, &c.:--mār-baiṭhnā (-ko), To strike, beat, &c.:--mār-denā, v.t. intens. of and=mārnā:--mār-ḍālnā, v.t. (intens.) To kill outright, to slay, to murder:--mār-lenā, v.t. (intens.) To beat completely, to overcome, conquer, &c.:--mārne-hārā, or māran-hārā, s.m. Smiter; slayer, &c.

H ماڙنا माड़ना māṛnā, v.t. To rub; to thresh corn; to flatten, &c. (=māṅḍnā, q.v.).

H ماگنا मागना māgnā, v.t.=māṅgnā, q.v.

H مانا माना mānā [mā˚ = Prk. मा(इ)=S. मा(ति), rt. मा;+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To be contained (in;--cf. amānā, and samānʼā).

H مانا मान्ना mānnā, v.t. prop. ماننا mānnā, q.v.

H مانپنا मांपना māṅpnā, dialec. forms of māp, and māpnā, qq.v.

H مانجنا मांजना māṅjnā [māṅj˚ = Prk. मंज(इ), or मंजे(इ)=S. मार्जय(ति), fr. मार्ज्, or fr. rt. मृज्;+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To rub, scrub, scour, clean, furbish, polish:--māṅjnā-mūṅjnā, v.t. (intens.) Idem.

H مانجهنا मांझना māṅjhnā, v.t.=māṅjnā, q.v.

H مانڐنا मांडना māṅḍnā (fr. māṅḍ), v.t. To starch.

H مانڐنا मांडना māṅḍnā [māṅḍ˚ = Prk. मड्ड(इ)=S. मर्द(ति), or मृद्ना(ति), rt. मृद्;+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To rub; to press down, to flatten; to tread or trample on, to crush; to tread out (corn), to thresh; to knead;--to stir up, excite, commit, perpetrate, make; to set on foot, set up, establish, institute;--to jot or note down, to enter, to commit to the books (an item, or a memorandum, &c.); to write (a letter);--to intend, determine.

H ماندهنا मांढना māṅḍhnā, v.t. (Dakh.)=māṅḍnā, q.v.

H مانڙنا मांड़ना maṅṛnā, v.t.=māṅḍnā, q.v.

H مانگنا मांगना māṅgnā [māṅg˚ = Prk. मग्ग(इ)=S. मार्ग(ति), or मार्गय(ति), fr. मार्ग्, (rt. मृग्)], v.t. To ask for, request, demand, beg, solicit, entreat, pray, crave; to want, desire, seek; to borrow;--to ask in marriage; to betroth:--māṅg-tāṅg karnā, v.t. To ask for; to borrow.

H ماننا मानना mānnā [mān˚ = Prk. मान(इ), or माने(इ)=S. मानय(ति), caus. fr. rt. मन्;+nā = Prk. अनअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To respect, revere, esteem; to regard, heed, mind, attend to, observe, obey; to believe, trust, credit; to admit, allow, acknowledge, confess, own; to permit; to acknowledge the superiority of, to submit, yield; to agree to, assent to; to consent; to accept, receive; to take, assume, suppose; to take for granted, to grant; to hold, view, consider, regard as, deem, account; to hold to be true or right; to consider of importance; to approve;--to feel, experience, entertain;--to be set on:--mān-jānā, (intens.) To heed, mind, &c.; to acknowledge the superiority of; to submit, yield, come to terms with; to comply with; to acknowledge, confess, own, &c.:--mān-lenā, v.t. intens. of and=mānnā:--mānne-jog, adj. Worthy of honour or veneration, venerable, &c.; worthy of acceptance or belief, credible, &c.

H مپانا मपाना mapānā [caus. of māpnā, q.v., and=māp˚ +ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment)+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To cause to measure.

H مپنا मपना mapnā (fr. the trans. māpnā), v.n. To be measured;--v.t.=māpnā, q.v.

H مپوانا मपवाना mapwānā (doub. caus. of māpnā; and=māp˚+āw+āw, &c.; see mapānā), v.t. To cause to be measured, to have or get (a thing) measured.

H متانا मुताना mutānā [caus. of mūtnā;--mutā˚ = mūt+ā = āw = Prk. āwa or āwe = S. āpi, caus. augment], v.t. To cause to pass urine:--mutāne-wālā, adj. (f. -ī), Diuretic;--mutāne-wālī dawā, A diuretic.

H مترانا मतराना matrānā [fr. S. मन्त्र; or prob. caus. of matnā, q.v.], v.t. To persuade.

H متلانا मतलाना matlānā [mat˚ = S. मथ्य(ते), pass. of rt. मथ्+lā caus. aff.; cf. matnā = mathnā], v.n. To be sick (at the stomach), to feel nausea (syn. maćlānā).

H متنا मतना matnā [mat˚ = Prk. मंत(इ), or मंते(इ), fr. S. मन्त्र], v.n. To hold consultation (with, -se), to consult together, to consult; to agree together.

H متنا मतना matnā, v.t. corr. of mathnā, q.v.

H متهنا मथना mathnā [Prk. मथणअं; S. मन्थनीयं, rt. मन्थ or मथ्], v.t. To stir round; to churn; to beat or beat up; to knead, work, squeeze; to revolve (mentally), to ponder, consider; to agitate (a question), to discuss, debate; to sift, scrutinize, investigate.

H مٿاکانا मटाकाना maṭākānā (dialec., or corr.), v.t.=maṭkānā, q.v.

H مٿارنا मिटारना miṭārnā (caus. of miṭnā), v.t. (dialec.)=next, q.v.

H مٿالنا मिटालना miṭālnā (caus. of miṭnā), v.t. (dialec.)=next, q.v.

H مٿانا मिटाना miṭānā [caus. of miṭnā; and=miṭ˚+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment)+ nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To efface, rub or blot out, wipe out, obliterate, erase; to abrogate, abolish, cancel; to appease, satisfy (hunger, &c.; cf. meṭnā):--miṭā-denā, v.t. intens. of and=miṭānā.

H مٿانا मुटाना muṭānā (moṭā, q.v.+ānā, as in miṭānā, q.v.), v.n. To become fat (syn. moṭā ho-jānā).

H مٿکانا मटकाना maṭkānā (caus. of maṭaknā; and=maṭak˚+ānā, as in miṭānā, q.v.), v.t. To roll or move about (the eyes), to wink (the eye); to wanton with (the eyes); to ogle;--to shake (a limb or member, or the clothes, &c.); to work (the hips); to make a display before.

H مٿکنا मटकना maṭaknā [maṭak˚ = S. मथ+कृ; or वृत्+कृ], v.n. To wink, to ogle, to coquet; to mince; to move with wanton gestures, &c.;--to twinkle.

H مٿنا मिटना miṭnā (fr. the trans. meṭnā, q.v.), v.n. To be effaced, or obliterated, or expunged, or erased; to be abolished, or cancelled; to be appeased, or satisfied (as hunger, thirst, or revenge, &c.); to be destroyed, be annihilated;--to be lost in admiration (of, -par), be passionately in love (with);--to cease to exist, come to an end, become extinct, die out; to die, expire:--miṭ-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=miṭnā.

H مٿهارنا मठारना maṭhārnā [maṭhā = Prk. मट्ठअ=S. मृष्ट+क+ār = āl (caus. augment)+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To hammer down the dints and inequalities of (a new metal vessel); to smooth and give shape by hammering to (a new metal vessel); to rub and beat (kneaded dough) with the knuckles; (fig.) to coax or wheedle, to talk over, win over by soft speech, &c., to prevail upon, to make willing;--to dilate or expatiate upon.

H مٿهنا मिठना miṭhnā, v.n. (dialec.)=miṭnā, q.v.

H مٿهيانا मुठियाना muṭhiyānā [muṭṭhī, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment)+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To seize with the fist, to grasp, clutch;--to handle;--to press or knead the limbs of (a person), to shampoo (syn. muṭṭhiyāṅ bharnā).

H مٿيانا मटियाना maṭiyānā [maṭṭī, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment)+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To rub or scrub with earth or mud;--to plaster or smear with mud;--v.n. To be reduced to dust; to be levelled or razed; to be or become extinguished:--maṭiyā-lenā, v.t. Intens. of and=maṭiyānā.

H مٿيانا मटियाना maṭiyānā [maṭī˚, prob. akin to S. मृष्; ˚ānā, as in the preceding, q.v.;--cf. also maṭaknā], v.t. To wink at, connive at; to suffer, tolerate;--to pretend not to hear; to turn a deaf ear to; to make no answer.

H مٿياونا मटियावना maṭiyāwnā, or maṭiyāʼonā, v.t. (dialec.)=maṭiyānā, q.v.

H مٿيرنا मिटेरना miṭernā, v.t. (dialec.)=miṭārnā, q.v.

H مٿيلنا मिटेलना miṭelnā, v.t. (dialec.)=miṭālnā, q.v. (cf. miṭernā).

H مچالنا मिचालना mićālnā, v.t. (dialec.)=mićaulnā, q.v.

H مچانا मचाना maćānā [caus. of maćnā; and=mać˚+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment)+ nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To raise up, stir up, set up, excite;--to cause, make, produce; to commit, perpetrate:--maćā-denā, v.t. intens. of and=maćānā.

H مچانا मुचाना mućānā (caus. of mūćnā; cf. mać-ānā), v.t. To cause to close or shut upon; to cause to nip or pinch.

H مچاونا मचावना maćāwnā, or maćāʼonā, v.t.=maćānā, q.v.

H مچرانا मिचराना mićrānā [mićrā˚ = mićār˚ = S. मृक्ष+ कार (or मृश + कार), cf. mić-kārnā, or ˚rā = ˚ār = āl, is the H. caus. augment], v.t. To play with food (by turning it over), to eat without appetite.

H مچکارنا मिचकारना mićkārnā [mićkār˚ = S. मृक्ष (or मृज) + कार], v.t. To rinse.

H مچکانا मचकाना maćkānā, or मिचकाना mićkānā [mićk˚ = S. मिष् + कृ; cf. mićnā; or maćk˚ = S. मच् (pass. मच्य˚) + कृ;--˚ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment)], v.t. To shut and open (the eyes) reiteratedly and quickly, to wink, to blink.

H مچکانا मचकाना maćkānā (cf. laćkānā), v.t. To shake; to bend.

H مچکاونا मचकावना maćkāwnā or maćkāʼonā, v.t.=maćkānā or mićkānā, q.v.

H مچکنا मचकना maćaknā [maćak˚ = Prk. मच्चक्क(इ), or मच्चक्के(इ), fr. S. मच् (pass. मच्य˚) + कृ], v.n. To creak (as a bedstead, &c.);--to have pains in the joints.

H مچلانا मचलाना maćlānā (fr. maćlā), v.n. To be wayward, &c. (=maćalnā); to pretend ignorance (of).

H مچلانا मचलाना maćlānā, (dialec.) मिचलाना mić-lānā [mać˚ = Prk. मच्च(इ)=S. मच्य(ते), pass. of rt. मंच् or मच्;--˚lā = āl, H. caus. augment;--or maćlā, as above;--but cf. matlānā], v.n. To feel sick at stomach, to feel nausea, to feel squeamish.

H مچلنا मचलना maćalnā [maćal, q.v.+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To be wayward, or perverse, or obstinate; to insist (upon); to be refractory, or disobedient; to be cross;--to sulk, pout, &c. (as a wayward child).

H مچمچانا मचमचाना maćmaćānā [maćmać˚ = Prk. मच्च(इ)=S. मच्य(ते), pass. of rt. मच् or मंच्, redupl.;--or, perhaps, onomat.], v.n. To creak (as a bedstead, or other thing heavily laden);--to become full, or crammed, &c. (see mać-ā-mać);--to be or become excited, to get into a state of lust, to be in heat:--maćmaćā-jānā, v.n (intens.) To become excited, &c.:--maćmaćā-ke lipaṭnā (-se), To cling tightly or closely (to), to hug tight or close.

H مچنا मचना maćnā [mać˚ = Prk. मच्च(इ)=S. मच्य(ते), pass. of rt. मच or मंच्], v.n. To be raised up, to be stirred up, to be excited; to be caused, be made, be produced; to be committed, be perpetrated; to be noised abroad, be promulgated;--to be engaged or employed (in);--(dialec.) to be yoked;--to be flexible:--mać-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=maćnā.

H مچنا मिचना mićnā (fr. the trans. mīćnā, q.v.), v.n. To be shut or closed (the eye); to shut, close;--v.t.=mīćnā, q.v.

H مچوانا मचवाना maćwānā (doub. caus. of maćnā), v.t. To cause to be raised or stirred up, &c. (see maćnā).

H مچوڙنا मचोड़ना maćoṛnā (mać˚, as in mać-nā, q.v.+oṛ = āw+aṛ (=al = āl), caus. augments+nā), v.t. To twist; to break by twisting.

H مچولنا मिचौलना mićaulṇā (mić˚, as in mić-nā, q.v.+aul˚ = āwal = āw+al (=āl), caus. augments), v.t. To shut or cover (the eyes):--āṅkh (or āṅkheṅ) mićaulnā (-kī), To cover the eyes (of); to blindfold.

H مخيانا miḵẖiyānā [meḵẖ, q.v.+ī+ā = āw = Prk. āwa or āwe = S. āpi, caus. augment), v.t. To beat, subdue, overcome.

H مرانا मराना marānā (caus. of mārnā, q.v.), v.t. To suffer sodomy (the word gāṅṛ being usually expressed).

H مرانا मुराना murānā, v.t. (dialec.) caus. of murnā, q.v.

H مرپچنا मरपचना mar-paćnā, v.n. See s.v. marnā.

H مرجانا मरजाना mar-jānā, v.n. See s.v. marnā.

H مرجهانا मुरझाना murjhānā [murjhā˚ = S. मूर्छ(ति), rt. मुर्छ्+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि, caus. augment;--or=S. मूर्छित], v.n. To wither, fade, droop, pine; to become dejected or dispirited; to turn faint; to swoon:--murjhā-jānā, v.n. (intens.), To become blighted or withered; to wither or fade away; to faint, to swoon (=murćhā-jānā).

H مرچهانا मुरछाना murćhānā, v.n. (dialec.)=murjhānā, q.v.:--murćhā-jānā, v.n.=murjhā-jānā.

H مردنا मर्दना mardnā [mard˚ = S. मर्द(ति), rt. मृद्], v.t. To rub, touch, anoint; to grind, pound, crush, pulverize, bruise, break; to subdue; to destroy.

H مررهنا मररहना mar-rahnā, v.n. See s.v. marnā.

H مرغولنا marg̠olnā, v.n. (Dakh.) To trill, to quaver; to warble, sing; to talk (as birds).

H مرکانا मुरकाना murkānā (caus. of muraknā), v.t. To cause to twist or curve; to twist, curve, curl, bend; to cause to turn away;--v.n. To twist; to writhe, &c. (=muraknā, q.v.).

H مرکنا मुरकना muraknā [murak˚ = Prk. मुडक्क(इ), or मुडक्के(इ), fr. S. मुट् or मुड् (a form of मृद्)+कृ], v.n. To twist; to writhe; to bend, curve, curl; to turn away (from); to be shy (of);--to be broken, be snapped:--murak-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=muraknā.

H مرکونا मरकोना markonā [mark˚, prob. fr. S. मृष्; <*>nā, as in ḍubonā, q.v.], v.t. (dialec.) To sprinkle (water, on grain, &c.), to wet, damp.

H مرمرانا मरमराना marmarānā, or मुरमुराना murmurānā [marmar or murmur, q.v. +ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment)+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To rustle; to murmur, mutter, grumble; to creak, to grate; to crackle, &c.

H مرنا मरना marnā [mar˚ = Prk. मर(इ)=S. म्रिय(ते), but Vedic also मर(ति), rt. मृ], v.n. To die, expire; to cease; to be dead (as in a game); to fade, wither; to be lost (as a stake, or a bad debt); to become bankrupt or insolvent (in these senses mar-jānā is the more com. form);--to die or be dying (for, -par), to set the heart (upon), to be desperately enamoured (of), or in love (with), to desire vehemently;--to labour or toil hard (for, -ko), to sweat and groan, to suffer hardship;--(as a gerund) s.m. Dying, death:--mar-paćnā, v.n. To work (oneself) to death, to labour excessively; to suffer pain or sorrow:--mar-jānā, v.n. To die; to fade, &c. (see marnā); to die away, die off; to be as though dead; to swoon:--mar-jīwnā, v.n. To recover from death;--s.m. Escape from the jaws of death:--mar-rahnā, v.n. To die; to be dead; to lie dead;--to be dying (for, -par), &c., see marnā:--mar-khapnā, v.n.=mar-jānā, and mar-paćnā, qq.v.:--mar-miṭnā, v.n. To die and be effaced; to be killed or slain;--to be ruined, be sacrificed (for, -ke pīćhe):--maran-hār, or marne-hārā, adj. (f. -ī), & s.m. Doomed to die, dying, perishable, mortal;--a mortal:--marne-jog, adj. Fit or deserving to die:--marne-ko, About to die, at the point of death:--marne-kī furṣat na honā, To have no time to die; to be overwhelmed with work, to have too much to do to think of dying:--bin āʼī marnā, To die prematurely; to die a violent death.

H مرنا मुरना murnā (i.q. muṛnā, q.v.), v.n. (dialec.) To be saturated or drenched (with); to be absorbed or wrapt (in); to be swallowed up and lost (in); to be bent (on); to be addicted (to); to acquire a taste (for).

H مروانا मरवाना marwānā (doub. caus. of marnā), v.t. To cause to be killed, to cause to be put to death;--(doub. caus. of mārnā), v.t. To cause to be beaten, &c.;--to suffer sodomy (the word gāṅṛ being usually expressed):--marwā-ḍālnā, v.t. (intens.) To cause to be put to death;--to dismiss a charge or complaint.

H مرورنا मरोरना marornā, v.t.=مروڙنا maroṛnā, q.v.

H مروڙنا मरोड़ना maroṛnā [maroṛ, prob. fr. intens. of rt. मृद्; or by redupl. fr. caus. of rt. मुर्; cf. muṛnā; moṛnā], v.t. To turn, bend, double up; to twist, writhe, contort, distort; to gripe; to yearn;--to squeeze to death;--to crunch up, to devour.

H مرونا मिरोना mironā [mir˚ = mīr = amīr, q.v.+o = P. rav or rau; or=āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि, caus. augment], v.n. (dialec.) To proceed with state and grandeur; to make a tour; to perambulate, stroll, roam.

H مڙکنا मुड़कना muṛaknā, or मड़कना maṛaknā, v.n.=مرکنا muraknā, q.v.

H مڙنا मुड़ना muṛnā (see the trans. moṛnā), v.n. To be turned; to be turned back, or down, or over; to be or become twisted; to be or become bent, or crooked;--to turn; to bend; to twine; to double over, or under, or back; to pucker up (as cloth, paper, leaves, &c.);--to turn back, to return;--to turn or draw aside; to diverge:--muṛ-jānā, v.n. (intens.) To be or become turned, or bent, or twisted, &c. (see muṛnā).

H مڙوانا मुड़वाना muṛwānā (doub. caus. of moṛnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to be turned, or doubled down or over; to cause to be twisted, &c.

H مڙوانا मुड़वाना muṛwānā, v.t.=muṅṛwānā, or muṅḍwānā, q.v.

H مڙوڙنا मड़ोड़ना maṛoṛnā, v.t.=مروڙنا maroṛnā, q.v. (and cf. moṛnā).

H مڙهنا मढना maṛhnā [maṛh˚ = Prk. मड्ड(इ), or मढ(इ), fr. मड्ड=मड्ढ=S. मृष्ट, p.p.p. of rt. मृद्], v.t. To cover (as a book, &c. with leather, or a drum with parchment), to overspread; to case, to encase (in), to coat over; to gild; to put a top or head to; to encrust;--to throw (upon), to saddle (one, with).

H مڙهيانا मुढ़ियाना muṛhiyānā [muṛhiy˚ = muṛhī = muṛī, fem. part. of muṛnā, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. āwe = S. āpi (caus. augment)+nā], v.n. To be twisted, &c. (=muṛnā); to be writhed.

H مڙيانا मड़ियाना maṛiyānā [māṅḍī, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि caus. augment) + nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To paste; to stick on.

H مسانا मुसाना musānā (caus. of mūsnā), v.t. To cause to steal.

H مستانا मस्ताना mastānā [mast, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment)+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To be or become drunk; to be or become excited with lust;--to grow stout and lusty;--to be or become puffed up with conceit or pride:--mastā-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=mastānā.

H مسکانا मसकाना maskānā (caus. of masaknā, q.v.), v.t. To tear, rend; to split, burst; to clutch tightly, to press, squeeze (=masaknā).

H مسکانا मुसकाना muskānā, (dialec.) मुसुकाना musukānā, v.n. To smile, &c. (=muskurānā, q.v.).

H مسکرانا मुसकुराना muskurānā, (dialec.) मुसकराना muskarānā, and मुसकिराना muskirānā [muskur˚ or muskar˚ = mukh, q.v.+Prk. ड=S. र (dim. aff.)+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment) + nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To smile, grin, smirk, simper.

H مسکنا मसकना masaknā [masak˚ = S. मर्श (rt. मृश्)+ कृ], v.t. To touch, rub, stroke, handle;--to press, squeeze:--masak-lenā, v.t. intens. of and=masaknā.

H مسکنا मसकना masaknā [masak˚ prob.=S. मष+कृ], v.n. To be torn or rent; to tear; to split, burst; to fall asunder, or in pieces;--to be very tight (a dress):--masak-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=masaknā.

H مسکنا मसकना masaknā [masak˚ = S. मस्क(ते), rt. मस्क्], v.n. To move, stir.

P مسکيانا मुसकियाना muskiyānā, or मुसक्याना muskyānā(musky˚ = mukhī = mukh+ikā;+ānā, as in muskurānā), v.n. To smile, &c. (=muskānā, and muskurānā, q.v.).

H مسلنا मसलना masalnā [masal˚, fr. S. मृश or म्रक्ष, with H. caus. augment al = āl = lā], v.t. To rub to pieces; to crush between the palms; to bruise, crush, pulverize, triturate;--to press, squeeze:--masal-ḍālnā, v.t. intens. of masalnā.

H مسمسانا मसमसाना masmasānā, or मुसमुसाना musmusānā [masmas˚, or musmus˚, by redupl. of S. मश or मृष्+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि caus. augment], v.n. To breathe hard or heavily (as from emotion, or passion, &c.); to cry suppressedly or softly; to sob, snivel, whimper, &c.; to mutter, murmur, grumble;--to be highly incensed or exasperated;--to suppress (one's) sentiments from fear.

H مسنا मिसना misnā [mis˚ = Prk. मिस(इ)=S. मृश(ति), rt. मृश्], v.n. To be pulverized, to be ground, crushed, or triturated, &c.;--to be rumpled, or crumpled (by rubbing).

H مسوسنا मसोसना masosnā [masos˚, i.q. masmas˚, as in masmasānā, or=S. rt. मृश् redupl.], v.t. To twist; to wring; to press, squeeze; to press (the heart, &c.) in order to stop its throbs of pain or anguish; to keep down, to suppress (an emotion, &c.); to bear (a wrong) patiently or in silence; to grieve, to regret:--masos karnā = masosnā.

H مکرانا मुकराना mukrānā (caus. of mukarnā), v.t. To prove to be lying or false, to give the lie to;--to refute.

H مکرنا मुकरना mukarnā (mukar˚, prob. corr. of A. منکر munkar, 'denied,' or munkir, 'denying'), v.t. & v.n. To deny; to refuse; to go back from one's word;--to belie:--mukar-jānā, intens. of, and=mukarnā.

H مکرونا मकरोना makronā, v.t. To wet, damp, moisten.

H مکڙانا मकड़ाना makṛānā [makaṛ or makkaṛ, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. अपि (caus. augment)+ nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To move like a spider; to move in a winding path or course, to move crookedly or tortuously; to walk affectedly or with a swagger (syn. akṛānā);--to fidget;--to waver;--to be averse (to); to act contrary (to); to counteract;--to do (work, &c.) perfunctorily, or carelessly, or lazily (syn. jī ćurānā).

H مکيانا मुक्कियाना mukkiyānā, or मुकियाना mukiyānā [mukkī, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment)+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To hit, or thump, or beat, with the fist;--to knead (dough) with the fist.

H مگانا मगाना magānā, v.t.=منگانا maṅgānā (the com. form, q.v.).

H مگانا मुगाना mugānā (caus. of mugnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to become musty or spoiled (as grain, &c.).

H مگرانا मगराना magrānā [magrā, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment) + nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To be refractory, or stubborn, or surly, &c. (see magrā).

H مگنا मुगना mugnā [mug˚ = Prk. मुग्ग=S. मुद्ग; see mūṅg], v.n. (dialec.) To smell like mūṅg (used of grain kept long in a damp granary); to become musty (as grain, &c.).

H ملارنا मलारना malārnā (fr. malār), v.n.=malār gānā, q.v.

H ملانا मलाना malānā (caus. of malnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to rub, or to scour, or to grind;--(for malwānā) to cause to be rubbed, &c.

H ملانا मिलाना milānā (caus. of milnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to unite or join, &c.; to unite, join, connect, attach; to close; to cement;--to cause to meet or come together; to bring together; to introduce (one person to another); to act as a pander or a pimp between;--to put (into, or amongst); to put (together, or with); to mix, mingle, blend, combine; to cause to unite, or agree, or correspond, or harmonize; to assimilate; to reconcile; to adjust; to apply; to fit; to accord; to compare (with, -se):--milā-denā, v.t. intens. of and=milānā:--milā-lenā, v.t. (intens.) To make friends of, to reconcile; to conciliate, to pacify; to persuade, to gain or win over, to make partizans of.

H ملانا मुलाना mulānā [mol, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment)+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To fix or settle the price of; to appraise (i.q. mulāʼī karnā).

H ملاونا मिलावना milāwnā or milāʼonā v.t.=milānā, q.v.

H ملکانا मलकाना malkānā [prob. malik, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.) + nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. (dialec.) To talk, or to act, grandly, or affectedly (the word is com. to the dialect of women).

H ملکنا मलकना malaknā [malak˚, prob.=Prk. मलक्क(इ), or मलक्के(इ), fr. S. मल+कृ], v.n. (dialec.) To feel nausea, to be sick at stomach; to be bilious;--to be troubled with doubt, or suspicion; to be apprehensive (of).

H ملکنا मलकना malaknā (cf. maṭaknā), v.n. To walk like a kahār or chairman, &c. (trotting and raising the shoulders);--to walk affectedly, to perk oneself, to strut.

H ملنا मलना malnā [mal˚ = Prk. मल(इ)=S. मृद्ना(ति), rt. मृद्], v.t. To rub; to rub down (a horse); to scrub, scour; to furbish; to anoint;--to grind; to tread on, trample on; to tread out (corn);--to wring (the hands):--mal-ḍālnā, v.t. intens. of malnā, q.v.:--malnā-dalnā, v.t. To rub; to squeeze; to grind, to crush, &c. (=malnā).

H ملنا मिलना milnā [Prk. मिलणअं; S. मिलनीयं, rt. मिल्], v.n. To be mixed, be mingled, be blended; be confounded; be amalgamated; be shuffled; to be joined, be united; to become connected (with, -se); to be met with, be found, be obtained, be attained, to come to hand (to a person, us-ko), come into possession;--to mix, mingle, blend; to join, unite, combine; to come together, to come into contact (with); to meet; to touch; to take into the arms, to embrace; to associate (with); to visit, to have an interview (with); to assemble; to coincide (with), to coalesce (with); to agree, accord; to be reconciled (to); to harmonize; to correspond; to suit, fit, tally; to occur:--mil-baithnā, v.n. To live together in harmony or unity:--mil-jānā, v.n. To mix together; to come together; to have an interview (with); to be met with, be found, be obtained; to be recovered; to hold together, &c. (see milnā, of which it is generally intensive):--mil-rahnā, v.n. To be regularly or constantly obtained or met with;--to unite and live with; to live in harmony (with):--milnā-julnā, or milnā-jhulnā, v.n. To meet cordially; to have unrestricted intercourse (with):--milnā sanjonā, To get the intended presents ready:--milnā-hilnā, v.n. To be together; to act together; to join, combine, coalesce:--milne-ko jānā, To go to meet or receive; to go on a visit (to, -ko).

H ملوانا मलवाना malwānā (doub. caus. of malnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to be rubbed, or scoured, &c.;--to have, or to get (a thing) rubbed, &c.

H ملوانا मिलवाना milwānā (doub. caus. of milnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to be mixed, &c.; to cause to be joined or united; to cause to be reconciled, &c.;--also=milāṇā, q.v.:--milwā-denā, v.t. intens. of and=milwānā.

H مميانا मिमियाना mimiyānā, ममियाना mamiyānā [mimiy˚ = me-me (onomat.)+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To bleat (as a goat, or sheep).

H منا मन्ना mannā, v.n. See مننا mannā.

H منانا मनाना manānā [caus. of mānnā;--manā˚ = mān˚+ ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि caus. augment], v.t. To cause to mind; to put in mind (of, -se); to cause to agree to, &c.; to cause to trust; to reason with, to persuade, prevail upon, win over; to soothe; to coax; to conciliate; to propitiate; to assuage, to appease;--to turn the mind or attention to; to pay (one's) devoirs to; to invoke, to call upon (God); to desire (of, -se), to pray for;--to meditate, reflect upon;--to practise, to carry on (?):--manānā-danānā, v.t. To conciliate, to appease, &c. (i.q. manānā).

H منانا मन्नाना mannānā [mannā˚ = Prk. मन्नावे(इ)=S. मन्य(ते)+ आपि caus. augment], v.n. To be or become offended or angry;--to raise its hood (a snake).

H مناونا मनावना manāwnā, or manāʼonā, v.t.=manānā, q.v.

H منجانا मंजाना manjānā (caus. of māṅjnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to rub, or scour, or clean;--to get or have (anything) rubbed, &c.; to cause to be polished, or trained, &c.

H منجرانا मंजराना manjarānā, or manjrānā [manjarā˚ = manjar, q.v. + ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि, caus. aug.], v.n. To blossom.

H منجنا मंजना manjnā (fr. the trans. māṅjnā, q.v.), v.n. To be rubbed, or wiped, or scoured, or cleaned, or polished, or smoothed.

H منجهنا मंझना maṅjhnā, v.n.=maṅjnā, q.v.

H مندانا मन्दाना mandānā [mandā˚ = mand, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि caus. augment], v.n. To become slow or languid, &c. (see mand); to become abated, &c. (i.q. mandā paṛnā, q.v.s.v. mandā).

H مندنا मुंदना muṅdnā (fr. the trans. mūṅdnā, q.v.), v.n. To be shut, or closed; to be filled up, be blocked up; to be contracted;--v.t. To close, &c. (=mūṅdnā, q.v.):--muṅd-jānā, v.n. intens. of and =muṅdnā.

H منڐانا मुण्डाना muṇḍānā (caus. of muṇḍnā), v.t. To shave (i.q. muṅṛānā).

H منڐلانا मण्डलाना maṇḍalānā or maṇḍlānā, or मँडलाना maṅḍlānā [maṇḍlā˚ = maṇḍal+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To make a circuit; to fly round, to hover (as birds); to be enveloped:--maṇḍlāyā phirnā (maṇḍlāyā, p.p. of maṇḍlānā), To go wandering round or about; to keep hovering round.

H منڐنا मण्डना maṇḍnā, or मँडना maṅḍnā [manḍ˚ = Prk. मंड(इ) or मंडे(इ)=S. मण्डय(ति), caus. of rt. मण्ड्], v.t. To adorn, deck; to array.

H منڐنا मण्डना maṅḍnā, or मँडना maṅḍnā (fr. the trans. māṅḍnā, q.v.), v.n. To be rubbed; to be trampled on; to be kneaded (as dough);--to be busy or engaged; to be engrossed or absorbed (in, -meṅ);--v.t.=māṅḍnā, q.v.

H منڐنا मुण्डना muṇḍnā, or मुँडना muṅḍnā, (dialec.) मँडना maṅḍnā (fr. the trans. mūṅḍnā, q.v.), v.n. To be shaved; to be shorn; (fig.) to be fleeced, be swindled.

H منڐوانا मुण्डवाना muṇḍwānā, or मुँडवाना muṅḍwānā (doub. caus. of mūṅḍnā), v.t. To cause to be shaved, to get (the head, &c.) shaved.

H منڐهانا मंढाना maṅḍhānā [maṅdhā˚ = māṅḍ, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आवे=S. आपि], v.t. (dialec.) To starch (i.q. māṅḍnā, and maṅḍiyānā).

H منڐهنا मंढना maṇḍhnā, v.t. To cover, &c. (i.q. maṛhnā, q.v.);--v.n. To be held, be celebrated (in this sense prob. fr. S. maṇḍ).

H منڐهنا मँढना maṅḍhnā, v.n.=maṅḍnā, q.v.

H منڐهنا मुंढना muṅḍhnā, (dialec.) v.n.=muṅḍnā, q.v.;--v.t.=mūṅḍnā, q.v.

H منڐهوانا मंढवाना maṅḍhwānā (doub. caus. of maṅḍhnā = maṛhnā), v.t. To get or have (a book, or a drum, &c.) covered (with leather, or parchment); to cause to be encased, &c.

H منڐهيانا मंढियाना maṅḍhiyānā, v.t. (dialec.)=maṅḍiyānā, q.v.

H منڐيانا मंडियाना manḍiyānā [manḍiyā˚ = māṅḍī, q.v. +ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+ nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To apply starch to, to starch; to dye (the hair, &c.).

H منڙانا मुंड़ाना muṅṛānā, v.t.=muṅḍānā, q.v.

H منڙرانا मंड़राना maṅṛrānā, v.n. (dialec. or rustic)=manḍlānā, q.v.

H منڙنا मुंड़ना muṅṛnā, v.n.=muṇḍnā, q.v.

H منگانا मंगाना maṅgānā [caus. of māṅgnā;--maṅgā˚ = maṅgāw˚ = Prk. मग्गावे(इ)=S. मार्ग+आपय(ति)], v.t. To send for; to ask for; to call for; to procure:--maṅgā-bhejnā, &c., See s.v. maṅgā, conj. part. of maṅgānā.

H منگنا मंगना maṅgnā, v.t. (dialec.)=māṅg̠nā, q.v.

H منگوانا मंगवाना maṅgwānā (doub. caus. of māṅgnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to be sent for;--to cause to ask for, or to send for, &c. (i.q. maṅgānā, q.v.).

H منمنانا मिनमिनाना minminānā [minminā, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि caus. aug.+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. (dialec.) To speak indistinctly, or in a low tone, or with a feeble voice; to murmur;--to burn dimly or feebly (a light), to glimmer, to flicker;--to eat slowly.

H مننا मनना mannā (see the trans. mānnā, and manānā), v.n. To be soothed, to be tranquillized; to be conciliated, or propitiated;--to be invoked.

H منوانا मनवाना manwānā (caus. of manānā, or doub. caus. of mannā), v.t. To cause to conciliate, or to be conciliated, &c. (see manānā).

H موتنا मूतना mūtnā (fr. mūt, q.v.), v.n. To discharge urine, to make water.

H موچڙانا मोचड़ाना moćṛānā [moć(nā)+ṛā, caus. aff.;--or moćṛā˚ = moć+Prk. dim. aff. डओ=S. र+कः], v.t. To sprain, to twist (i.q. mūćkānā).

H موچکانا मूचकाना mūćkānā [mūćkā˚, prob. fr. mūćkār˚ = moć, or mūć, q.v.+S. कार], v.t. To sprain, to twist (i.q. moćṛānā).

H موچنا मोचना moćnā, or मूचना mūćnā [moć or mūć˚ = Prk. मुंच(इ), or मुच्च(इ)=S. मुञ्च(ति), rt. मुच्], v.t. To loosen; to let loose, let go, to set free, to liberate, &c. (see moćan); to throw or put off, cast, shed;--to extinguish;--to snap; to pinch, nip;--to shut, close (in this sense, gen. mūćnā);--s.m. A pair of forceps, pincers, tweezers (cf. S. mućuṭī).

H مودنا मूदना mūdnā, v.t. = mūṅdnā, the more com. form, q.v.

H مورانا मौराना maurānā [maurā˚ = Prk. मोल्लाव(इ) or मोल्लावे(इ), fr. S. मौल+आपि;--or maur, q.v. +ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. (dialec.) To blossom; to flourish (i.q. maulnā).

H موراونا मौरावना maurāwnā [maurā˚ = Prk. मोल्लाव(इ) or मोल्लावे(इ), fr. S. मौल+आपि;--or maur, q.v. +ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. aug.)+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. (dialec.) To blossom; to flourish (i.q. maulnā).

H مورنا मोरना mornā, v.t. (dialec.)=موڙنا moṛnā, q.v.

H مورنا मौरना maurnā, v.n. (dialec.)=maulnā, q.v.

H موڙنا मूड़ना mūṛnā, v.n. (rustic or dialec.)=muṅḍnā, q.v.

H موڙنا मोड़ना moṛnā [moṛ˚ = Prk. मोड(इ, or मोडे(इ); S. मोट(ति), or मोटय(ति), rt. मुट्], v.t. To turn, bend, twist; to sprain; to screw, or screw on; to turn or double down; to plait, gather; to turn away, or aside; to turn back; (dialec.) to drive back (an army), to repulse, defeat, put to rout;--to give back, to return;--to take back;--to twist, torture, or pervert (one's meaning, or words, e.g. arth moṛnā):--moṛ-denā, v.t. intens. of and=moṛnā.

H موسنا मूसना mūsnā, or मोसना mosnā [mūs˚ = Prk. मूस(इ)=S. मूष(ति), rt. मूष्], v.t. To steal, pilfer, filch; to snatch, or seize, by force; to rob, plunder; to cheat, defraud, swindle, cozen, cajole, wheedle.

H موسنا मोसना mosnā [mos˚, prob.=S. मुष्य(ति), rt. सुष्, or मुस्य(ति), rt. मुस्], v.t. To twist, to wring (as the neck, &c.); to press, squeeze; to suppress (feeling, or emotion), &c. (i.q. masosnā, q.v.).

H مولانا मौलाना maulānā v.n.=maurānā, and maulnā, qq.v.

H مولاونا मौलावना maulāwnā v.n.=maurānā, and maulnā, qq.v.

H مولنا मोलना molnā (fr. mol, q.v.), v.t. (dialec.) To buy, to purchase (i.q. mol-lenā, q.v.s.v. mol).

H مولنا मौलना maulnā [prob. fr. maul = maur, 'blossom,' q.v.;--or maul˚ = Prk. मोल(इ) or मोले(इ)=S. मौलय(ति), denom, v. fr. मौल], v.n. To blossom, bud, bloom; to flourish;--v.t. To exhilarate; to intoxicate (said of bhang).

H مونا मूना mūnā [mū˚ = Prk. मुअ(इ), fr. मुअ=S. मृत p.p.p. of rt. मृ], v.n. To die, expire.

H مونا मून्ना mūnnā, v.n.=موننا mūnnā, q.v.

H موندنا मूंदरा mūṅdnā [mūṅd˚ = Prk. मुद्द(इ), or मुद्दे(इ)=S. मुद्रय(ति), denom. verb fr. मुद्रा, q.v. To close, shut; to cover; to fasten; to imprison; to involve:--mūṅd-denā, v.t. intens. of and=mūṅdnā.

H موندهنا मूंधना mūṅdhnā [mūṅd˚ = Prk. मुद्द(इ), or मुद्दे(इ)=S. मुद्रय(ति), denom. verb fr. मुद्रा, q.v. To close, shut; to cover; to fasten; to imprison; to involve:--mūṅd-denā, v.t. intens. of and=mūṅdnā.

H مونڐنا मूंडना mūṅḍnā [mūṅḍ˚ = Prk. मूंड(इ)=S. मुण्ड(ति), rt. मुण्ड्], v.t. To shave; to shave the head of;--to make a disciple of;--to wheedle (one, out of anything), to cozen, to cheat:--mūṅḍ-denā, v.t. intens. of and=mūṅḍnā:--ulṭe usture-se mūṅḍnā, 'To shave with the back of a razor'; to cheat, cajole, cozen.

H مونڙنا मूंड़ना mūṅṛnā, v.t.=mūṅḍnā, q.v.

H موننا मूनना mūnnā [mūn˚ = Prk. मूण(इ), or मूणे(इ), fr. S. मून, p.p.p. of rt. मू; or fr. S. मौन], v.n. To be silent;--to forget.

H موهنا मोहना mohnā [moh˚ = Prk. मोह(इ), or मोहे(इ)=S. मोहय(ति), caus. of rt. मुह्], v.t. To allure, tempt, seduce; to infatuate, to delude; to fascinate, enchant, charm:--moh-lenā, v.t. intens. of and=mohnā.

H مہانا मिहाना mihānā [mihā˚ = S. मेघ;; Prk. मेह+ā = āw = Prk. āwa, or āwe = S. आपि (caus. aug.); or=S. मिह्+ā, &c.], v.n. To become damp or humid.

H مہکانا महकाना mahkānā [mahak, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment) + nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To exhale (agreeable scent); to perfume, to scent.

H مہکنا महकना mahaknā (fr. the trans. mahkānā, or fr. mahak), v.n. To exhale agreeable scent; to diffuse fragrance, to emit odour; to smell pleasant; to be fragrant:--mahak-jānā, v.n. To be scented or perfumed.

H مہنا महना mahnā [Prk. महणअं; S. मथनीयं, rt. मथ्], v.t. To churn.

H مہنکنا मुहंकना muhaṅknā (prob. a dialec. var. of mahaknā, q.v.), v.t. To smell.

H ميٿنا मेटना meṭnā [meṭ˚ = Prk. मिट्ट(इ), or मिट्टे(इ), fr. मिट्ट, for मिट्ठ=S. मृष्ट, p.p.p. of rt. मृज्], v.t. To rub out, wipe out, blot out, efface, erase; to annihilate; to do away with, to annul, cancel; to atone for, to expiate;--to thwart, &c. (see the neut. v. miṭnā).

H ميجنا मीजना mījnā, v.t.=مينجنا mīṅjnā, q.v.

H ميچنا मीचना mīćnā [mīćh˚, mīć˚ = Prk. मिच्छ(इ), or मेच्छ(इ)=S. मेक्ष्य(ति), future (used in sense of present) of rt. मिष्], v.t. To shut or close (the eyes); to wink (cf. mićnā).

H ميچهنا मीछना mīćhnā [mīćh˚, mīć˚ = Prk. मिच्छ(इ), or मेच्छ(इ)=S. मेक्ष्य(ति), future (used in sense of present) of rt. मिष्], v.t. To shut or close (the eyes); to wink (cf. mićnā).

H ميسنا मीसना mīsnā (caus. of misnā, q.v.), v.t. To grind, pulverize;--to tweak, to twitch;--to rumple, crumple.

H ميلنا मेलना melnā [mel˚ = Prk. मेल(इ), or मेले(इ)=S. मेलय(ति), caus. of rt. मिल्; see milnā], v.t. To cause to meet, or come together; to congregate together, to convene;--to halt (an army, &c.);--to put (in), to mix (with); to thrust (in or into), cram (in), force (in); to penetrate;--(dialec.) to send, send forth; to give forth, to utter (a cry); to cry to, to call (cf. melwo).

H ميميانا मीमियाना mīmiyānā [mīmiyā˚ = me-me, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. āwa or āwe = S. आपि caus. aug.], v.n. To bleat (as a lamb, or kid;--i.q. mimiyānā, q.v.).

H مينجنا मींजना mīṅjnā [mīṅj˚ = Prk. मिंज(इ)=S. मृञ्ज(ति), rt. मृज्], v.t. To rub with the hands; to crush, pulverize; to rub, scrub, scour, clean (i.q. māṅjnā, q.v.).

H مينڐنا मींडना mīṅḍnā, v.t. (dialec.)=mīṅjnā, q.v.

H مينڐيانا मेंडियाना meṅdiyānā [meṅḍiy˚ = meṅḍī =meṅḍ, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. āwa or āwe = S. āpi, caus. aug.], v.t. To skirt, or inclose, with a bank or fence; to make a bank, or dike, or dam, round (a place).

H مينڙنا मींड़ना mīṅṛnā, v.t.=mīṅḍnā, q.v.

H مينکنا मेंकना meṅknā [meṅk˚ = meṅ = S. मे (onomat.) +कृ], v.n. To bleat (as a goat or sheep;--cf. S. meka, 'a goat').

urdU verbs (lAm) / उर्दू अफ़्`आल (ल)

2008-04-20T21:29:00.001-05:00

This is a list of non-compound hindUstAnI verbs that have the lAm (ل) of the fArsI alphabet as the first letter. See my earlier post "A Deluge of Verbs ...?" for a background. This list was generated by mining the online version of Platts' Dictionary, and is a verbatim copy of the entries therein. This list may not be exhaustive & complete.

155 non-compound verbs starting with the lAm are listed below.

H لاپهنا लाफना lāphnā [lāph˚ = S. लम्फ], v.n. To jump, leap, spring.

H لاجنا लाजना lājnā [Prk. लज्जणअं; S. लज्जनीयं, rt. लज्ज्], v.n. To feel ashamed or abashed; to be bashful, or shy, &c.; to blush.

H لادنا लादना lādnā [lād˚ = Prk. लद्धो=S. लब्धः, p.p.p. of rt. लभ्], v.t. To load, lade, burden, freight (an animal, or a cart, or a boat or ship); to take in cargo;--to pile or heap (upon, -par); to place heavy (or many) things (upon); to oppress (one) with tasks or charges; to lay on thickly; (in wrestling) to have (one) on the cross-buttock:--lād-denā, v.t. intens. of and=lādnā.

H لاسنا लासना lāsnā [lās˚ = Prk. लासइ=S. लासय(ति), rt. लस्], v.n. To shine, &c. (=lasnā, q.v.);--to be sticky, or glutinous, &c. (=laslasānā, q.v.).

H لاکهنا लाखना lākhnā (fr. lākh, q.v.), v.t. To apply lac to.

H لاگنا लागना lāgnā, v.n. (dialec. or rustic)=lagnā, q.v.

H لالے پڙنا लाले पड़ना lāle paṛnā (see lāl and lālā), v.n. To long distractingly and hopelessly (for, -ke); to be despondent, to despair (of);--to be or become unattainable; to be scarce or scanty.

H لانا लाना lānā (contrac. of le-ānā, lit. 'having taken to come, or to take and come'), v.t. To bring, fetch; to bring forward, to adduce; to bring in, introduce, usher in; to import; to bring under, to include (in); to bring (a person) to agree (to, -par), to induce, persuade, win over (to); to apply; to purchase, buy; to bring forth, beget, breed, yield, produce, make (N.B.--lānā, although it governs the acc. case, is, since a neut. verb enters into its construction, treated as a neuter verb in the tenses formed by means of the perfect part.; the nom. case, and not the agent being employed; e.g. maiṅ usko lāyā hūṅ, 'I have brought him or it,' not maiṅ-ne usko lāyā hai):--lānā-bandī, s.f. Assessment of land according to the number of ploughs employed on it:--lānā lagānā, s.m. Taking cattle in lieu of money (from a debtor).

H لانگهنا लांघना lāṅghnā [Prk. लंघणअं; S. लङ्घनीयं, rt. लङ्घ्], v.t. To mount upon, to ride; to sit astride of, to bestride; to jump or spring over, to leap or step over; to overstep, to go beyond, to pass over:--lāṅgh-jānā, intens. of and=lāṅghnā.

H لاونا लावना lāwnā, or lāʼonā, v.t.=lānā, q.v.

H لباڙنا लबाड़ना labāṛnā (fr. labāṛ), v.t. (Dakh.) To plunder, spoil (syn. lūṭnā, q.v.; cf. labaṛnā).

H لبڙنا लबड़ना labaṛnā (labaṛ˚ = labāṛ, q.v.), v.n. To speak or act falsely or deceitfully, to tell lies, to fabricate; to act absurdly, improperly, or foolishly.

H لبهانا लुभाना lubhānā [lubhā˚ = lubhāw˚ = Prk. लोभावे(इ), fr. S. लोभ+आपि (caus. augment)], v.t. To excite desire in, to make (one) long (for, -par), to tantalize, to cause (one) to covet; to allure, attract (by), entice, tempt, seduce; to draw or win over; to fascinate, charm;--v.n. To desire greatly or eagerly, to long (for, -par), to covet; to be allured or tempted (by, -par; syn. lubdha honā):--lubhā-lenā, v.t. intens. of and=lubhānā.

H لبهاونا लुभावना lubhāwnā, or lubhāʼonā, v.t.=lubhānā, q.v.

H لپانا लिपाना lipānā [caus. of līpnā;--lipā˚ = Prk. लिपाव˚ or लिपावे˚=S. लिप+आपि (caus. augment)], v.t. To cause to smear or anoint, to cause to plaster or whitewash, &c.

H لپٿانا लिपटाना lipṭānā, or लपटाना lapṭānā (caus. of lipaṭnā), v.t. To cause to unite or adhere, to stick; to fold or wrap (round), to twine or wind (round), &c.;--v.n.=lipaṭnā, q.v.

H لپٿنا लिपटना lipaṭnā, or लपटना lapaṭnā [lipaṭ˚ = S. लिप्त, p.p.p. fr. rt. लिप्], v.n. To stick (to, -meṅ, or -se), to cling (to), adhere (to); to twine or coil (round, -meṅ); to mix (with), unite (with); to harmonize (with); to stick close (to), to keep (at, -ke pīćhe), to follow, pursue; to wrestle (with, -se), struggle, fight;--to be embraced; to be wrapped or folded (in), to be encased; to be enclosed, be encased (in); to be rolled up (or made) into a ball; to be involved; to be implicated (in); to be united in marriage (with), to be married;--to be smeared, be daubed, be covered (with), to be bedraggled:--lipaṭ-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=lipaṭnā.

H لپکانا लपकाना lapkānā (caus. of lapaknā), v.t. To bound forward in order to snatch; to snatch at, dart at, make a snatch for; to stretch forth (the hand, for a thing);--to despatch (one) quickly (in this sense, also, lapkā-denā).

H لپکنا लपकना lapaknā [lapak˚ = Prk. लप्पक्क(इ) or लप्पक्के(इ), prob. fr. S. लम्फ+कृ], v.n. To spring (upon,--par), to dart (at), to snatch (at); to make an attack (on); to bound, bounce; to catch (a ball, &c.); to flash, dart (as lightning); to beat, throb, palpitate; to rush (after), to give chase (to); to hurry, make haste:--lapak-lenā, v.t. To spring forward and seize; to seize, snatch; to snap at or up; to hook, claw.

H لپنا लिपना lipnā [lip˚ = Prk. लिप्प(इ)=S. लिप्य(ते), rt. लिप्], v.n. To be smeared; to be plastered (with), to be washed over, to be whitewashed;--(dialec.) to stick close (to), to fit well (as a cap);--to be flexible, to bend (as a cane).

H لپوانا लिपवाना lipwānā (doub. caus. of līpnā), v.t. To cause to be smeared; to have (a wall, &c.) plastered or whitewashed.

H لپيٿنا लपेटना lapeṭnā (caus. of lapaṭna or lipaṭnā, q.v.; for eṭ, cf. S. ćapeṭa and ćapaṭa), v.t. To roll up; to roll or wrap (round, -par), to wind or twine (round), to furl; to wrap up, to enwrap, to envelop; to cover by wrapping round; to fold, coil, enclose, pack; to involve, implicate;--to smear, to spread (over, -par):--lapeṭ-denā, and lapeṭ-lenā, v.t. intens. of and=lapeṭnā.

H لتاڙنا लताड़ना latāṛnā (lāt, q.v.+ār˚, caus. augment), v.t. To treat with contumely or disdain, to spurn, to revile, to insult, to affront; to bring down;--to work, to overwork, to make (one) toil or use exertion, to exhaust by labour, to fatigue, jade, wear out.

H لتهاڙنا लिथाड़ना lithāṛnā, लथाड़ना lathāṛnā, v.t.=latheṛnā.

H لتهڙنا लिथड़ना lithaṛnā, or लथड़ना lathaṛnā (prob. fr. the trans. lithāṛnā), v.n. To be smeared or daubed, to be draggled, &c. (see lathaṛ).

H لتهيڙنا लिथेड़ना litheṛnā, or लथेड़ना latheṛnā [lith˚ or lath˚ = Prk. लित्त=S. लिप्त (p.p.p. fr. rt. लिप्)+eṛ = ār = āl, Hindī caus. augment], v.t. To besmear, to spread over, bedaub, draggle, soil, foul, sully, pollute; to clog (with dirt); to saturate, soak, drench;--to put on (or apply) a poultice or plaster;--to mix together.

H لتيانا लतियाना latiyānā (fr. lāt, q.v.), v.t. To kick.

H لتيڙنا लतेड़ना lateṛnā, v.t.=latheṛnā, q.v.

H لٿانا लिटाना liṭānā (caus. of leṭnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to lie down, to lay (one) down (on the ground, or a bed, &c.); to place.

H لٿانا लुटाना luṭānā (caus. of lūṭnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to be plundered (=luṭwānā); to cause to plunder; to give up to plunder;--to spend lavishly (syn. uṛānā), to squander:--luṭā-denā, v.t. intens. of and=luṭānā.

H لٿانا लुटाना luṭānā (caus. of loṭnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to wallow or roll about; to let (a horse, &c.) roll (on the ground); to cause to roll over or fall down, to bring down (a bird, or animal):--luṭā-luṭā-kar mārnā, v.t. To beat severely.

H لٿارنا लिटारना liṭārnā, v.t. (rustic)=liṭānā, q.v.

H لٿپٿانا लटपटाना laṭpaṭānā (fr. laṭ-paṭ, q.v.s.v. laṭ), v.n. To rock, shake; to be loose or rickety; to totter, reel, stagger; to trip; to walk affectedly, to mince; to tarry, loiter; to stammer or hesitate (in speaking).

H لٿکانا लटकाना laṭkānā (caus. of laṭaknā), v.t. To cause to hang or dangle; to hang, suspend, swing; to append, to attach (to, -par);--to keep (one) waiting or in suspense; to put off, to defer, postpone:--laṭkā-denā, v.t. intens. of and=laṭkānā.

H لٿکنا लटकना laṭaknā [laṭak˚ = laṭa(=latā?)+S. कृ+ nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To hang, to depend; to hang loosely, to dangle, to swing; to be suspended, to be swung;--to be kept waiting or in suspense; to be put off, be postponed:--laṭak-paṛnā, or laṭak-jānā, v.n. To hang, dangle; to be or become suspended; to hang ooneself (on or to, -meṅ):--laṭak-rahnā, v.n. To remain or continue hanging (on or over, -meṅ); to linger (over), to loiter, tarry, delay.

H لٿنا लटना laṭnā [laṭ, q.v. + nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To become tangled or entangled;--to be or become reduced (by sickness), to become lean or emaciated;--to fade away, to lose strength, become weak; to degenerate, deteriorate; to become impoverished, to become poor;--to acquire a habit, or a taste;--(as a gerund) s.m. Becoming reduced; falling off or away; diminution:--laṭ-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=laṭnā.

H لٿنا लुटना luṭnā (fr. the trans. lūṭnā, q.v.), v.n. To be plundered, to be sacked; to be robbed; to be cheated, or defrauded; to be squandered;--to be ruined, be undone:--luṭ-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=luṭnā.

H لٿوانا लिटवाना liṭwānā (doub. caus. of leṭnā, q.v.), To cause to be laid down; to cause to be put to rest:--liṭwā-denā, v.t. intens. of and=liṭwānā.

H لٿوانا लुटवाना luṭwānā (doub. caus. of lūṭnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to be plundered or sacked; to cause to be given up to plunder; to give up to plunder (=luṭānā); to cause to be robbed, or cheated, or defrauded; to cause to be squandered:--luṭwā-denā, v.t. intens. of and=luṭwānā.

H لٿهنا लुठना luṭhnā (fr. the trans. lūṭhnā), v.n.=luṭnā, q.v.

H لٿهيانا लठियाना laṭhiyānā [laṭṭhī (=lāṭhī)+ā = āw = Prk. आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment) + nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To cane, cudgel, belabour.

H لجانا लजाना lajānā [lajā˚ for lajjā, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment)+nā = Prk.अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To be ashamed (of, -se), to be abashed, to take shame to oneself; to blush;--v.t. To make ashamed, to put to shame.

H لجلجانا लजलजाना lajlajānā (fr. lajlajā, q.v.), v.n. To become soft or flabby;--v.t. To soften (cf. laćlaćānā).

H لجوانا लजवाना lajwānā (caus. of lajānā), v.t. To cause to be ashamed, to put to shame, to shame, to cause to blush.

H لجيانا लजयाना lajyānā, or लजियाना lajiyānā, v.n.=lajānā, q.v.

H لچانا लचाना laćānā (caus. of laćnā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to bend, to bend, bow, crook; to deflect.

H لچکانا लचकाना laćkānā (caus. of laćaknā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to bend; to jolt; to strain, to sprain.

H لچکنا लचकना laćaknā [laćak, q.v.+nā = anā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To be bent (as the bough of a tree, &c.); to bend, to yield; to spring, to start;--to receive a sprain or strain, to be sprained:--laćak-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=laćaknā.

H لچلچانا लचलचाना laćlaćānā (see laslasānā), v.n. To be sticky, or clammy, or viscous or glutinous (cf. lajlajā); to be flexible or elastic.

H لچنا लचना laćnā [lać˚ = S. लस्; for change of s to ć, cf. lālać], v.n. To be or become bent or bowed; to bend, bow, yield, give way, sink in, sag (as a wall, or beam, &c.):--lać-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=laćnā.

H لچهيانا लछियाना laćhiyānā [laććhī, fem. of laććhā, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आवे=S. आपि caus. augment], To make skeins (of thread, &c.); to reel (thread, &c.).

H لچيانا लुचियाना lućiyānā, v.t.=loć denā, q.v.s.v. loć.

H لخلخانا laḵẖlaḵẖānā, (fr. laḵẖlaḵẖ), v.n. To pant from thirst or hunger; to be reduced to extreme feebleness through hunger.

H لدانا लदाना ladānā (caus. of ladnā, q.v.), v.t. 'To cause to be loaded,' to load, lade, freight:--ladā-denā, v.t. To load; to help in loading.

H لدنا लदना ladnā (fr. the trans. lādnā, q.v.), v.n. To be loaded or laden; to be borne or carried:--lad-jānā, v.t. intens. of ladnā:--lad-lenā, v.t. To load oneself; to load, burden; to mount (upon, -par).

H لدوانا लदवाना ladwānā (doub. caus. of lādnā), v.t. To cause to be loaded; to cause to load (=ladānā):--ladwā-denā, v.t. intens. of and=ladwānā.

H لررانا larzānā (caus. of laraznā, q.v.), v.t. To cause to shake, or tremble, or quiver, &c.; to shake.

H لرزنا laraznā [laraz˚ = P. larz˚; see larzān], v.n. To shake, quiver, tremble, quake, totter; to palpitate, throb, beat.

H لڙانا लड़ाना laṛānā [caus. of laṛnā;--laṛā˚ = laṛāw˚ = Prk. लडाव(इ) or लडावे(इ)=S. रट + आपय(ति)], v.t. To cause to fight; to make (two persons, or two animals) fight; to set by the ears; to bait; to fight; to play; to direct the movements of an army.

H لڙاونا लड़ावना laṛāwnā, or laṛāʼonā, v.t.=laṛānā, q.v.

H لڙبڙانا लड़बड़ाना laṛbaṛānā, v.n. To stammer, falter, speak nonsensically (from fear):--to stagger, reel;--to stick, adhere.

H لڙکنا लुड़कना luṛaknā, v.n.=luṛakhnā, q.v.

H لڙکهرانا लड़खराना laṛkharānā, v.n. (dialec.)=laṛkhaṛānā, q.v.

H لڙکهڙانا लड़खड़ाना laṛkhaṛānā, or लुड़खुड़ाना luṛkhuṛānā [fr. S. लड्+स्खल्+ā = āw = Prk. आवे=S. आपि caus. augment], v.n. To stumble, trip, slip, fall down; to reel, stagger, totter, waver; to sway (from side to side), to roll;--to stutter, stammer, falter (in speaking).

H لڙکهنا लुड़खना luṛakhnā [luṛakh˚ = luṛak˚ = S. लुट+ कृ], v.n. To roll, to roll over, roll off, fall off; to tip or topple over; to slip, slide:--luṛakh-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=luṛakhnā.

H لڙنا लड़ना laṛnā [laṛ˚ = Prk. लड(इ)=S. रट(ति), rt. रट्], v.n. To fight, quarrel, strive, contend, struggle; to make war, give battle; to cope or vie (with); to hit, strike (against), collide (with); to tally, agree, coincide (with,--as an account, &c.); to contend (with); to risk, stake (e.g. jān laṛ rahī hai); to subscribe, contribute (in opposition or rivalry);--fighting, quarrelling, &c.:--laṛnā-bhiṛnā, v.n. To engage and fight; to fight, quarrel, &c. (=laṛnā):--laṛ-paṛnā, v.n. To fall to fighting; to fall out:--laṛ-marnā, v.n. To die fighting; to engage in mortal strife:--laṛne-marne-wālā, s.m. (f. -wālī), A great fighter; one who engages in mortal combat; one who will fight to the death.

H لڙهانا लुढ़ाना laṛhānā (caus. of luṛhnā, v.t. To cause to roll, to set a-rolling; to cause to roll down, or roll over; to cause to topple over; to upset; to spill; to cause to slip or slide.

H لڙهکانا लुढ़काना luṛhkānā (caus. ofluṛhaknā) v.t. To cause to roll, to set a-rolling; to cause to roll down, or roll over; to cause to topple over; to upset; to spill; to cause to slip or slide.

H لڙهکنا लुढ़कना luṛhaknā, or लुढ़ुकना luṛhuknā [luṛhak˚ = luṛha, see luṛhnā+S. कृ], v.n. To roll, roll over, roll down, topple over, fall down; to slip or slide down;--to recline, lie down, take rest;--to be spilt:--luṛhak-jānā, v.n. (intens.) To roll over, &c.; to drop or fall down; to fall down dead.

H لڙهنا लुढ़ना luṛhnā [luṛh˚ = Prk. लुढ(इ)=S. लुठ(ति), rt. लुठ्], v.n. To roll, &c. (=luṛhaknā, q.v.):--luṛh-jānā = luṛhak-jānā.

H لڙهيانا लढ़ियाना laṛhiyānā, v.t. corr. of laṛiyānā, q.v.

P لڙهيانا लुढ़ियाना luṛhiyānā, or (incorr.) लढ़ियाना laṛhiyānā [prob. fr. S. लुठिता, rt. लुठ्], v.t. To hem (a garment); to seam.

H لڙيانا लड़ियाना laṛiyānā, or लड़याना laṛyānā (fr. laṛī), v.t. To thread, string (pearls, &c.).

H لسکنا लसकना lasaknā [lasak˚, fr. S. लस+कृ], v.n.=lasnā, q.v.

H لسلسانا लसलसाना laslasānā [laslas˚ = Prk. सिलेस=S. श्लेष (rt. श्लिष्) redupl. + ā = Prk. आवे=S. आपि], v.n. To be viscous or glutinous, to be sticky or clammy;--to agglutinate.

H لسنا लसना lasnā, or लिसना lisnā [las˚ = Prk. लस(इ)=S. लस(ति), rt. लस्], v.n. To shine, to look bright or beautiful;--to be becoming (to), to become, befit;--to be or become viscous, or glutinous, or sticky; to stick (to); to fit tight or well (as a cap, &c.); to be tenacious or stiff (as soil); to be moist; to be smeared or plastered (with):--las-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=lasnā (the form lisnā appears to differ from lasnā in being used to express the idea of 'viscosity,' &c. only; cf. lisauṛā).

H لسيانا लसियाना lasiyānā, v.n.=laslasānā, q.v.

H لشنا लषना lakhanā, s.f. (dialec.) 1˚=lakshmaṇā;--2˚=lakhnā, qq.v.

H لکانا लुकाना lukānā [caus. of luknā;--lukā˚ = luk˚+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि caus. augment], v.t. To hide, conceal.

H لکاونا लुकावना lukāwnā or lukāʼonā, v.t.=lukānā, q.v.

H لکلکانا लकलकाना laklakānā, v.n. (dialec.), 1˚=lak-lak karnā, q.v.s.v. lak;--2˚=lakhlakhānā, q.v.

H لکنا लुकना luknā [luk˚ = Prk. लुक्क(इ); prob. fr. S. लुप्+कृ], v.n. To hide, to lie hidden; to conceal oneself; to disappear, to be or become invisible:--luk-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=luknā.

H لکهانا लखाना lakhānā (caus. of lakhnā), v.t. To cause to see or perceive, to show, to point out, &c. (syn. dikhānā).

H لکهانا लिखाना likhānā (caus. of likhnā), v.t. To cause to write; to teach to write; to get (a letter, &c.) written.

H لکهاونا लखावना lakhāwanā, or lakhāʼonā, v.t.=lakhānā, q.v.

H لکهلکهانا लखलखाना lakhlakhānā [prob. fr. S. लष् by redupl.], v.n. To gasp or pant with heat or thirst (as birds, &c.).

H لکهنا लखना lakhnā [Prk. लक्खणअं=लक्खणिअं=S. लक्षणीयं, rt. लक्ष्], v.t. To see, look at, behold, perceive; to understand;--v. int. To appear, seem.

H لکهنا लिखना likhnā [likh˚ = Prk. लिख(इ)=S. लिख(ति), rt. लिख्], v.t. To write, to enter, register, note; to copy; to compose (a work, &c.); to delineate, to paint;--s.m. Writing; handwriting:--likh-denā, or likh-lenā, v.t. To write down, to record; to write out, to copy, &c.:--likhnā-paṛhnā, s.m. Reading and writing; education:--likhnā ba-nām-ě-falāṅ, To draw (a bill) upon so-and-so:--likhne-hārā, s.m. (f. -ī), Writer, scribe; composer, author.

H لکهوانا लिखवाना likhwānā (doub. caus. of likhnā) v.t. To cause to be written or recorded, &c.; to have or get (a letter, &c.) written; to cause to be delineated or sketched;--to have (a picture) drawn, to get (a portrait) taken:--likhwā-lenā, v.t. intens of and=likhwānā.

H لکيرنا लकीरना lakīrnā (fr. lakīr), v.t. To mark with a line or lines; to mark off; to delineate, to sketch, to make a plan of.

H لگانا लगाना lagānā (caus. of lagnā, q.v.), To attach, unite, join, connect (with, -se, or to, -meṅ); to fasten; to fix; to affix; to put, place; to put to (a boat), to moor; to put or set (to work), to employ, to engage; to put to, to shut, close (a door, &c.); to put on; to apply; to use; to spread; to impose; to lay on (a whip or stick); to inflict; to put in, to plant, set; to put together (figures), to sum up, to add; to adjust, arrange; to direct; to fix an imputation (upon), to impute (to), to charge (with); to report (anything) in the way of scandal or malice; to sow discord, to set (people) by the ears:--lagānā-bujhānā (-meṅ), To sow discord (between) and then make peace;--to sow dissension:--lagā-denā, v.t. intens. of and = lagānā:--lagā-rakhnā, v.t. To detain, keep;--to put by, lay by; to hoard up:--lagā-lenā, v.t. (intens.) To put to (a boat); to put in, plant, set, &c. (=lagānā);--to attach or unite (one, to oneself), to conciliate, to win over; to fold (to one's bosom), to clasp, to embrace:--lagā-mārnā, v.t. To impute; to charge (with); to injure by imputation; to calumniate.

H لگاونا लगावना lagāwnā or lagāʼonā, (dialec.) लगाउना lagāʼunā, v.t.=lagānā, q.v.

H لگڙانا लगड़ाना lagṛānā (caus. of next), v.t. (dialec.)=ragṛānā, q.v.

H لگڙنا लगड़ना lagaṛnā, v.t. (dialec.)=ragaṛnā, q.v.

H لگنا लगना lagnā [lag˚ = Prk. लग्ग(इ)=S. लग्य(ते), rt. लग्+nā for anā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To be attached (to, -se, or -meṅ), to be joined (to), be connected (with), to be fastened (to, -meṅ); to be moored (a ship); to come to anchor; to be or become fixed (in or on); to come to a stand-still; to be inserted (in); to be planted or set (trees, &c.); to be added (to), to be appended; to fix itself (in or into); to take root, to become rooted (in); to be settled (on or upon); to settle down (in), to make a haunt (of), to hang about, to haunt, to frequent (e.g. wahāṅ sher lagtā hai); to lie in wait;--to be applied (to); to be put, or laid, or imposed (upon), to be staked (on, -par); to be invested (as money); to be spent, or expended, or consumed (on); to cost; to be valued at;--to be put (in or into); to be posted (as a letter); to be disposed of (to, -meṅ), to be sold (to), to be taken (at,--e.g. sau jildeṅ sarkār-meṅ lag-gaʼīṅ);--to be put in order, to be arranged;--to be employed, be occupied or engaged (in); to be intent (on), to be set or bent (on);--to be close (to), be contiguous (to), to adjoin; to join; to touch; to come into contact, or connection, or correspondence (with); to be in close intimacy (with, -se); to enter (into) and form the substance (of), to be duly concocted and assimilated; to be joined in sexual congress, to lie (with, -se); to copulate (with);--to attach (to, -ko), to cling (to); to be incurred, or contracted (as blame, disgrace, &c.); to attach oneself (to), to be with, or on the side (of);--to come (to); to fall (to or together), to close, shut (as doors, shutters, eyelids or eyes, &c.); to fall or draw (in, to collapse, to become shrunk or shrivelled (e.g. māre bhūk-ke peṭ lag-gayā);--to attain or reach (to), to arrive (at);--to stick, adhere (to); to catch; to falter (in speech), to stutter, stammer (e.g. zabān lagnā);--to light (on); to hit or strike (on or against, -meṅ);--to be discovered (a clue or trace, &c.); to act or operate (on, -ko), to take effect (on), to affect; to have the intended or natural effect, to answer, succeed, take, come off; to be achieved, be effected;--to get on foot, to get into vogue or fashion;--to touch, affect, move, melt (with dat.); to come home (to), to tell (upon);--to hurt or wound; to bite or sting; to burn or smart (as anything acrid or pungent); to taste (e.g. khaṭṭā lagnā); to be felt or perceived, to have a sense or feeling (of); to feel, perceive (e.g. sardī lagtī hai);--to act or operate hurtfully or disagreeably (as food, &c.), to be unwholesome (as the water of a place, e.g. pānī wahāṅ-kā lagtā hai); to bear or press (upon), to gall, pinch, rub (as a saddle on the back of a horse, &c.); to receive or sustain a galling or abrasion, to be galled, &c.;--to fall (upon, -ko), to attack (as blight, &c.); to be affected with blemish or damage; to be burnt or scorched (as food in cooking, or clothes in drying before a fire); to be or become touched, or tainted, or corrupted, or rotten, to rot;--to be imputed (to); to be falsely accused;--to be wanting or necessary (to);--to come or arise (upon or to), to happen (to), befall, betide;--to form an affection (of,--e.g. bhūk lagnā, pyās lagnā, &c.), to feel or have the desire (for,--e.g. jhāṛā lagnā, peshāb lagnā);--to be met (with); to be caught or overtaken (by,--as disease, calamity, &c.); to fall in the way (of), come (before), present itself (to);--to be found or obtained (by,--as service or employment);--to arise or come (upon); to be borne or produced (as fruit); to bear (as fruit-trees); to shoot, sprout, germinate;--to be or become, to have some certain condition, or quality, or accident; to be found to be; to look (like), to seem to be; to seem, appear;--to be kindled, to catch, to break out (as fire); to apply (to, -ko), to be applicable or pertinent, to hold good; to apply oneself (to); to be about, to begin (in this sense employed to form Inchoative compounds, e.g. kahne lagā, 'he began to say');--to arise and proceed; to set in (as rains, cold, heat, &c.); to be proceeding or in progress, to be in full fling or activity (as a market, &c.);--to have suitableness, or agreeableness, or harmonious relation; to fit, suit, become; to refer (to); to bear (on); to be related (to), to be a relation (of, -kā); to appertain (to), to belong (to); to be the concern, or province, or proper office or business (of); to be incumbent or obligatory (on, -ko; to be necessary to be done or suffered (by);--(as a gerund) s.m. Applying, application, &c.:--lag-ćalnā, v.n. For this and other similar compounds, see s.v. the past conj. part. lag:--lag-jānā, v.n. intens. of, and=lagnā (lag-jānā is the more com. form):--lag-lenā (-ke pīche), To follow (in the track of), to go (after).

H لگوانا लगवाना lagwānā [doub. caus. of lagnā:--rt. lag˚ +wa˚ = awā = āwā = āwāw = Prk.अवे or आव redupl.=S. आपि caus. increment, redupl.], v.t. To cause to be applied, or put, &c. (to, -meṅ);--to cause to apply, &c.; to apply, put (in), tix, &c. (=lagānā, q.v.):--lagwā-denā, v.t. intens. of and=lagwānā.

H للانا लिलाना lilānā [lilā˚ = lilāw˚ = S. लल+आBआपि; Prk. ललावे(इ)?], v.n. To feel eager desire (for), to long (for); syn. lalćānā.

H للچانا ललचाना lalćānā [lālać, q.v. + ā˚ = āw = Prk. आवे or आव=S. आपि;+nā = anā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To be possessed with a longing (for, -par), to long (for), hanker (after), lust (for); to be tantalized;--v.t. To excite desire in; to rouse the cupidity of; to tantalize.

H للسانا ललसाना lalsānā, v.n.=lalćānā, q.v.

H للکارنا ललकारना lalkārnā [lalkār, q.v.+nā = anā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To call out, shout, bawl, halloo (to, -ko); to set up the war-whoop;--v.t. To call or shout to; to call defiantly or insultingly to, to challenge.

H للکانا ललकाना lalkānā [caus. of lalaknā;--lalkā˚ =Prk. लल्लक्कावे(इ) or लल्लक्काव(इ)], v.t. To cause (one) to desire, to excite desire for in (a person), to make one eager for;--to cause to fight, or to attack, to excite to quarrel, to egg on.

H للکنا ललकना lalaknā, or लिलकना lilaknā (fr lalak, q.v.), v.n. To be possessed with a longing (for), to long or crave (for); to be greedy (for), to covet;--v.t. To attack, to fall upon.

H لليانا ललियाना laliyānā (fr. lāl, 'red'), v.n. To become red, to redden.

H لليانا ललियाना laliyānā, or लिलयाना lilyāna, v.n. To long (for), &c. (=lilānā, lalćānā, qq.v.);--v.t. To beg earnestly, to entreat; to coax, wheedle.

H لمبانا लम्बाना lambānā [for lambāwnā = lambā+āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि [caus. augment) + nā = anā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To lengthen; to extend; to prolong.

H لمکانا लमकाना lamkānā (caus. of lamaknā, q.v.), v.t. To stretch out (the hands or legs).

H لمکنا लमकना lamaknā [lamak˚ prob.=Prk. लम्मक्क(इ) or लम्मक्के(इ), fr. S. लम्ब+कृ], v.n. To stretch out the legs, to step out, take long strides; to make haste, to hasten.

H لنا लुन्ना lunnā, v.t. See لننا lunnā (the usual form).

H لنڐهانا लुण्ढाना lunḍhānā, v.t.=luṛhānā, q.v.

H لنڐهنا लुण्ढाना lunḍhnā, v.n. =لڙهنا luṛhnā, q.v.

H لنڐيانا लुण्डियाना lunḍiyānā [lunḍiyā˚ = S. लुण्टी+आपि caus. increment], v.n. To roll.

H لنگڙانا लंगड़ाना laṅgṛānā [laṅgṛā, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आव=आवे=S. आपि caus. increment; + nā = anā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To limp, to go (or walk) lame.

H لنگهانا लंघाना laṅghānā [caus. of laṅghnā;--laṅghā˚ for langhāw˚ = Prk. लंघाव(इ) or लंघावे(इ)=S. लङ्घ +आपय(ति)], v.t. To cause, or make, or help to jump over, &c.

H لنگهنا लंघना laṅghnā [Prk. लंघणअं=S. लङ्घनीयं, rt. लङ्घ्], v.t. To jump over, to leap over or across; to step over or across, to pass or cross over; to stride across, to bestride, to mount;--v.n. To be jumped over; to be passed over; to pass (as time, syn. bītnā).

H لننا लुनना lunnā [lun˚ = Prk. लुण(इ)=S. लुना(ति), rt. लू], v.t. To cut, to reap.

H لوانا लिवाना liwānā [caus. of lenā;--liwā˚ = lewā˚ = leʼā˚, i.e. le, q.v. + ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि, caus. aug.], v.t. To cause to take:--liwā-lānā (-ko), 'To take and bring'; to cause to be brought;--to bring, to fetch; to procure:--liwā-le-jānā (-ko), To cause to carry or take away.

H لوبهانا लोभाना lobhānā, v.t.=lubhānā, q.v.

H لوبهنا लोभना lobhnā [lobh˚ = Prk. लुब्भ(इ)=S. लुभ्य(ति), rt. लुभ्;+nā = anā = Prk. अणअं = S. अनीय], v.n. To long (for, -par); to be enamoured (of).

H لوٿانا लोटाना loṭānā [caus. of loṭnā, q.v.;--loṭ˚+ā = āw = Prk. आव or आवे=S. आपि caus. aug.], v.t. To cause to roll or toss about, or to wallow, or to flounder; to cause to roll over, to knock or bowl over, to bring down:--loṭā-denā, v.t. intens. of and=loṭānā.

H لوٿانا लौटाना lauṭānā (caus. of lauṭnā, q.v.; and cf. loṭānā), v.t. To turn over, to invert; to turn back; to send back, to return; to give back; to reject:--lauṭā-denā, v.t. intens. of and=lauṭānā.

H لوٿنا लूटना lūṭnā [lūṭ˚ = Prk. लुंट(इ)=S. लुण्ट(ति), rt. लुण्ट्;+nā = anā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To plunder, pillage, spoil, ravage;--to rob, steal, filch; to extort (anything) from;--to squander; to revel or riot in (e.g. bahār lūṭnā, maza lūṭnā):--lūṭ-lenā, v.t. intens. of and=lūṭnā.

H لوٿنا लोटना loṭnā [loṭ˚ = Prk. लोट्ट(इ)=S. लुट्य(ति), rt. लुट्;+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To roll, to roll about; to toss about; to wallow; to flounce; to sprawl:--loṭnā-poṭnā, v.n. To roll over, turn over; to wallow, &c.:--loṭ-jānā, v.n. (intens.) To roll; to lie (or throw oneself) down and turn or roll over (as a horse, or a child in a temper); to roll over, to fall down, to be brought down (as an animal that has been shot, &c.); to lie down, to be beaten down (as a field of corn, &c.); to throw oneself down, to fall down (at, -meṅ, e.g. pairoṅ-meṅ loṭ-gayā);--to long (for), be eager (for or after anything); to die (for); to be agitated with love; to be deeply in love (with);--to be ruined, become bankrupt, to fail (as a firm, e.g. koṭhī loṭ-gaʼī);--to miss, to fail (e.g. lohā loṭ-gayā);--to turn, to change for the worse:--loṭā-loṭā phirnā, v.n. To roll or toss about from restlessness or pain.

H لوٿنا लौटना lauṭnā, (dialec.) लोटना loṭnā [lauṭ˚ = ulaṭ˚ = palaṭ˚ = Prk. पल्लट्ट=S. पर्यस्त, p.p.p. of परि+ अस्; +nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To turn over; to turn back, to return; to retreat;--to go back (from), to be false (to), to play false:--lauṭ-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=lauṭnā:--lauṭ-pauṭ ćhāpnā (-ko), To print on both sides.

H لوڙهنا लोढ़ना loṛhnā (see loṛh), v.t. To wish for, to desire.

H لوڙهنا लोढ़ना loṛhnā (caus. of luṛhnā, q.v.), v.t. To hem, &c. (=luṛhiyānā, q.v.);--(dialec.) to separate the seed from cotton (syn. oṭnā);--to glean;--s.m. Gleaning.

H لوکنا लूकना lūknā (fr. lūk, q.v.), v.n. To be scorched by the sun; to be struck by the blast (of a furnace), or by a hot wind; to have a coup-de-soleil.

H لوکنا लूकना lūknā, or लोकना loknā [lok˚ = S. लोकय (ति),rt. लोक्], v.t. To look at, to see, behold.

H لوکنا लौकना lauknā, or लोकना loknā [lok˚; or lauk˚ = Prk. लुक्क(इ); S. लुप्+कृ], v.t. To catch (a ball, &c.).

H لوکنا लौकना lauknā [lauk˚ = S. लोकय(ति), rt. लोक्], v.n. To shine, flash, glitter, lighten.

H لولنا लोलना lolnā [lol˚ = S. लोलय(ति), fr. caus. of rt. लुल्], v.t. To cause to shake or vibrate, to set in motion; to move, shake, wag.

H لومنا लूमना lūmnā [lūm˚, prob.=S. लम्ब; cf. lom, 'base'], v.n. (rustic) To depend, hang low, lower (as clouds).

H لونا लौना launā, or लवना lawnā [Prk. लवणअं; S. लवनीयं, rt. लू], v.t. To cut, to reap;--s.m. (gerund) Cutting, reaping;--balancing, making (scales) equal:--launā-kāl, s.m. Reaping-time, harvest.

H لونچنا लोंचना loṅćnā, v.t. (dialec.)=noćnā, q.v.

H لہرانا लहराना laharānā, or lahrānā [lahar, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment)+nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To wave, to undulate; to fluctuate; to rise in waves (water);--to blaze up;--to play loosely, to put off, to shuffle;--v.t. To raise delusive hopes in (a person), to excite, to tantalize.

H لہرنا लहरना laharnā (fr. lahar), v.n. To wave (=lahrānā), to undulate; to rise in waves (water).

H لہکارنا लहकारना lahkārnā [lah-kār˚ = S. लस+ कार; or lahkārnā = next, q.v.], To fondle; to pat and encourage (a horse, &c.).

H لہکانا लहकाना lahkānā [causal. of lahaknā;--lahkā˚ = lahak+ā = āw = Prk. आवे=S. आपि caus. augment], v.t. To cause to shine or glitter; to cause to blaze or flame, to make a flame or blaze, to blow up (a fire);--to cause to warble or quaver; to warble, quaver, trill;--to tally-ho.

H لہکنا लहकना lahaknā [lahak˚ = S. लस+कृ], v.n. To glitter, flash, glance, shine, dance (as light); to be kindled or lighted, to rise up into a flame, to blaze up; to rise (as wind);--to bend or wave (as corn or grass before the wind);--to warble, quaver:--lahak-ke (or lahak) bolnā, To speak aloud or with confidence.

H لہلہانا लहलहाना lahlahānā [S. लस, redupl.+ā = āw = Prk. आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment) + nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.n. To wave or bend (as corn, &c. before the wind);--to bloom, to be verdant, to flourish (cf. lahnā).

H لہنا लहना lahnā [lah˚ = Prk. लह(इ)= लभ(ते), rt. लभ्], v.t. To find, get, experience;--v.n. To get on well, to prosper, flourish;--to accrue; to avail, answer, boot, signify;--s.m. Profit, gain; outstanding debt;--lot, portion, fortune, fate, destiny:--lahnā-pāʼonā, adj. Lucky, auspicious.

H لهيسنا ल्हेसना lhesnā, v.t. To besmear, plaster, &c. (=lesnā, q.v.).

H ليانا लेआना le-ānā, ल्याना lyānā. For this, and for other comp. verbs beginning with le which are not found below, see s.v. le.

H ليپنا लीपना līpnā, or लेपना lepnā [līp˚ = Prk. लिंप(इ)=S. लिम्प(ति), rt. लिप्], v.t. To plaster, smear, besmear, daub; to plaster with clay and cow-dung (or with mortar); to whitewash; to gloss over, conceal, hide:--līp-denā, v.t. intens. of and=līpnā.

H ليتاڙنا लेताड़ना letāṛnā (i.q. lithāṛnā, q.v.), v.t. To besmear; to draggle; to clog; to fatigue, weary.

H ليٿنا लेटना leṭnā [leṭ˚ = S. लेट्य(ति), fr. लेट्य; or leṭnā = loṭnā, q.v.], v.n. To lie down, to lie prostrate; to repose, rest;--to fall (at the feet of), to prostrate ooneself;--to submit, yield;--to become thin or sloppy; to melt (these meanings point to S. ली as the probable source of the word):--leṭ-jānā, v.n. intens. of and=leṭnā.

H ليچ جانا लीचजाना līć-jānā [līć, prob.=S. लीय(ते), rt. ली], v.n. To cower, submit, succumb, subside.

H ليسنا लेसना lesnā [les˚ = Prk. सिलेस(इ)=S. श्लेषय(ति), caus. fr. rt. श्लिष्; cf. ḍhīlā], v.t. To cause to adhere; to plaster (with mud and dung), to daub over, to smear, to spread;--to cause to burn, to kindle; to foment (a quarrel).

H ليکهنا लीखना līkhnā, v.t. (dialec.)=likhnā, q.v.

H ليکهنا लेखना lekhnā [lekh˚ = S. लेखय(ति), caus. of rt. लिख्; + nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To scratch, scrape; to dig, delve; to scoop; to engrave.

H ليکهنا लेखना lekhnā, v.t. (dialec.)=lakhnā, q.v.

H ليلنا लीलना līlnā (i.q. nigalnā, q.v.), v.t. To swallow, gulp, bolt:--līl-jānā (intens.), To swallow or gulp down, &c.

H ليليانا लेलियाना leliyānā [leliy˚ = lelī, fem. of lelā, q.v.+ā = āw = Prk. आवे=S. आपि (caus. augment)+ nā = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v. intr. To bleat.

H لي مرنا ले मरना le-marnā, v.n. See s.v. le, conj. part

H لينا लेना lenā, (dialec.) लैना lainā [le˚ = Prk. ले(इ)=लह(इ)=S. लभ(ते), rt. लभ्;+mī = Prk. अणअं=S. अनीयं], v.t. To take, accept, receive; to hold, grasp, lay hold of; to get, obtain, acquire; to reach; to buy, purchase; to borrow;--to absorb, consume; to take possession of, to appropriate; to seize, capture; to win; to overcome, master, conquer; to browbeat; to extort;--to take to task, to chide, rebuke, reprove;--to pick, pluck out (hair); to cut, pare (the nails);--(as a gerund), s.m. Taking, receiving, &c. (=len);--money to be realized, outstanding debt (the verb lenā is frequently annexed to the base of another verb to form intensives, and it becomes neuter itself when the leading verb is such; it is also occasionally used to form nominal verbs, e.g. kām lenā (-se), 'to take work' (from), 'to make use' (of);--mol lenā, 'to purchase'):--le-ḍālnā, v.t. To master completely; to thoroughly overpower or subdue;--to take sharply to task, to rebuke severely; to rate, scold, &c.; to disgrace, to humiliate:--le-lenā, v.t. To take, receive, &c. (=lenā); to take away (from, -se); to conquer or master completely; to take possession of, to seize upon; to take by force; to extort:--lenā-denā, s.m.=len-den, q.v.:--lenā ek na denā do, 'Nor one to receive nor two to give'; having nothing to gain or lose:--lene ānā (-ko), To come out (or forth) to receive (a person):--lene-ke dene paṛnā, 'To have to pay instead of receiving'; to be drawn into a difficulty; to be or become a loser (by);--to be on the point of death, to be past all hope.

H ليوانا लेवाना lewānā, v.t. (rustic)=liwānā, q.v.